The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Americans is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA).[77] Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can more easily be studied.[78] The pattern indicates Indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[79][80] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous American populations.[79]
The Andes, Mesoamerica, and eastern North America are considered centers that independently developed agriculture, a process known globally as the Neolithic Revolution.
The technological and social development of pre-Columbian cultures are conventionally classified into five archaeological stages:
Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica appeared after 600 CE, including alloys of copper; later, bronze techniques were probably imported from South America
The Iron Age in Eurasia is defined by the production of iron tools via smelting; iron smelting was never developed natively in the Americas. Unsmelted iron was used Andeana and Mesoamerican cultures for mirrors, decorative and ceremonial items, starting fires, and small hammers. Iron magnets were apparently used by the Olmec and Chavin to align monuments. Smelted iron from shipwrecked East Asian vessels was used in the Pacific Northwest before European contact.
↑Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.396 n. 29. ISBN978-0-19-514050-7.
1234Vest, Jay Hansford C. (Winter–Spring 2005). "An Odyssey among the Iroquois: A History of Tutelo Relations in New York". American Indian Quarterly. 29 (1/2): 124–55. doi:10.1353/aiq.2005.0072. JSTOR4138803.
↑Brooks, Rebecca Beatrice. "Native American Tribes in Massachusetts". History of Massachusetts. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
123456789"Mexico: Map". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
↑"Paipai Language (Akwa'ala)"Archived 2010-09-26 at the Wayback Machine. Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 10 Sept 2010.
1234Steward, Julian H. (1948) Editor. Handbook of South American Indians. Volume 4 The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143.
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1234"Prehistory of the Caribbean Culture Area"Archived 2011-08-05 at the Wayback Machine. Southeast Archaeological Center. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
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↑"Huachipaeri"Archived 2011-11-16 at the Wayback Machine. Ethnologue. Retrieved 18 Feb 2012.
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↑"Puelche". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
↑Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN1-55671-159-X. (Online version: .
↑"Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas"(PDF). Department of Biology, University College, London; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, Caracas, Venezuela; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Parana´, Curitiba, Brazil; 5Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque; 6Laboratorio de Gene´tica Humana, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota´; Victoria Hospital, Prince Albert, Canada; Subassembly of Medical Sciences, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Laboratorio de Gene´tica Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellı´n, Colombia; Université de Montréal. University College London 73:524–539. 2003. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2019-04-30. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
↑Orgel L (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world"(PDF). Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol. 39 (2): 99–123. CiteSeerX10.1.1.537.7679. doi:10.1080/10409230490460765. PMID15217990. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2018-11-13. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
12Tymchuk, Wendy (2008). "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q". Genebase Systems. Archived from the original(Verbal tutorial possible) on 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2009-11-21. Haplogroups are defined by unique mutation events such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs. These SNPs mark the branch of a haplogroup, and indicate that all descendants of that haplogroup at one time shared a common ancestor. The Y-DNA SNP mutations were passed from father to son over thousands of years. Over time, additional SNPs occur within a haplogroup, leading to new lineages. These new lineages are considered subclades of the haplogroup. Each time a new mutation occurs, there is a new branch in the haplogroup, and therefore a new subclade. Haplogroup Q, possibly the youngest of the 20 Y-chromosome haplogroups, originated with the SNP mutation M242 in a man from Haplogroup P that likely lived in Siberia approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years before present
↑Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002). The Journey of Man– A Genetic Odyssey(Digitised online by Google books). Random House. ISBN0-8129-7146-9. Archived from the original on 2016-05-18. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
↑"First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover– Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News". Archived from the original on 2012-10-10. Retrieved 2009-11-18. Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally brokenpage 2Archived March 13, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
↑Than, Ker (2008). "New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 2011-01-19. Retrieved 2010-01-23. Over time descendants developed a unique culture—one that was different from the original migrants' way of life in Asia but which contained seeds of the new cultures that would eventually appear throughout the Americas
↑"Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q". Genebase Systems. 2009. Archived from the original on 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2009-11-22.
↑Ruhlen M (November 1998). "The origin of the Na-Dene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (23): 13994–96. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9513994R. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994. PMC25007. PMID9811914.
↑Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF (January 2004). "High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 21 (1): 164–75. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009. PMID14595095.
↑Juliette Saillard; Peter Forster; Niels Lynnerup; Hans-Jürgen Bandelt; Søren Nørby (2000). "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-11-22. The relatively lower coalescence time of the entire haplogroup A2 including the shared sub-arctic branches A2b (Siberians and Inuit) and A2a (Eskimos and Na-Dené) is probably due to secondary expansions of haplogroup A2 from the Beringia area, which would have averaged the overall internal variation of haplogroup A2 in North America.
↑A. Torroni; T. G. Schurr; C. C. Yang; EJE. Szathmary; R. C. Williams; M. S. Schanfield; G. A. Troup; W. C. Knowler; D. N. Lawrence; K. M. Weiss; D. C. Wallace (January 1992). "Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations". Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine and Departments of Biochemistry and Anthropology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. 130 (1). Genetics Society of America: 153–62. Archived from the original on 2009-02-20. Retrieved 2009-11-28. The divergence time for the Nadene portion of the HaeIII np 663 lineage was about 6,000–10,000 years. Hence, the ancestral Nadene migrated from Asia independently and considerably more recently than the progenitors of the Amerinds
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