軍事政権（1948-58年）で最も権力を握っていたのはペレス・ヒメネスで、1950年に誘拐事件で死亡したシャルボーの死の背後にいたと疑われていた。軍事政権は1952年の大統領選挙で予想外に敗北したが、選挙結果を無視し、ヒメネスが大統領に就任した[要出典]。ヒメネスは1958年1月23日に追放された[18] 。まだ若い民主主義を強固にする努力の一環として、三大政党（ベネズエラ共産党を除く、民主行動党（ AD ）、COPEI、共和民主連合（URD））はプントフィホ協定に署名し、権力分担協定を結んだ。ADとCOPEIは40年間にわたり政界を支配した。
ベネズエラは南アメリカ北部に位置し、地質学的には本土は南アメリカプレート上に位置している。総面積は916,445 km 2 (353,841 平方マイル)、陸地面積は882,050 km 2 (340,560 平方マイル)で、世界で33番目に大きい国である。ベネズエラの領土は、北緯0度から16度、西経59度から74度の間にある。
ほぼ三角形の形をしたこの国は、北部に 2,800 km (1,700 マイル) の海岸線を持ち、カリブ海の多数の島々を含み、北東部は北大西洋に面しています。ほとんどの観察者は、ベネズエラを、北西部のマラカイボ低地、北カリブ海沿岸に沿ってコロンビア国境から東西に広い弧を描く北部山脈、ベネズエラ中央部の広い平野、南東部のギアナ高地という、かなり明確に定義された 4 つの地形地域として説明しています。
The northern mountains are the extreme northeastern extensions of South America's Andes mountain range. Pico Bolívar, the nation's highest point at 4,979 m (16,335 ft), lies in this region. To the south, the dissected Guiana Highlands contain the northern fringes of the Amazon Basin and Angel Falls, the world's highest waterfall, as well as tepuis, large table-like mountains. The country's center is characterized by the llanos, which are extensive plains that stretch from the Colombian border in the far west to the Orinoco River delta in the east. The Orinoco, with its rich alluvial soils, binds the largest and most important river system of the country; it originates in one of the largest watersheds in Latin America. The Caroní and the Apure are other major rivers.
Venezuela borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south. Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Aruba, and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast. Venezuela has territorial disputes with Guyana, formerly United Kingdom, largely concerning the Essequibo area and with Colombia concerning the Gulf of Venezuela. In 1895, after years of diplomatic attempts to solve the border dispute, the dispute over the Essequibo River border flared up. It was submitted to a "neutral" commission (composed of British, American, and Russian representatives and without a direct Venezuelan representative), which in 1899 decided mostly against Venezuela's claim.[citation needed]
Climate
Venezuela is entirely located in the tropics over the Equator to around 12° N. Its climate varies from humid low-elevation plains, where average annual temperatures range as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F), to glaciers and highlands (the páramos) with an average yearly temperature of 8 °C (46.4 °F). Annual rainfall varies from 430 mm (16.9 in) in the semiarid portions of the northwest to over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in the Orinoco Delta of the far east and the Amazonian Jungle in the south. The precipitation level is lower in the period from August through April. These periods are referred to as hot-humid and cold-dry seasons. Another characteristic of the climate is this variation throughout the country by the existence of a mountain range called "Cordillera de la Costa" which crosses the country from east to west. The majority of the population lives in these mountains.[153]
Venezuela map of Köppen climate classification
The country falls into four horizontal temperature zones based primarily on elevation, having tropical, dry, temperate with dry winters, and polar (alpine tundra) climates, amongst others.[154][155][156] In the tropical zone—below 800 m (2,625 ft)—temperatures are hot, with yearly averages ranging between 26 and 28 °C (78.8 and 82.4 °F). The temperate zone ranges between 800 and 2,000 m (2,625 and 6,562 ft) with averages from 12 to 25 °C (53.6 to 77.0 °F); many of Venezuela's cities, including the capital, lie in this region. Colder conditions with temperatures from 9 to 11 °C (48.2 to 51.8 °F) are found in the cool zone between 2,000 and 3,000 m (6,562 and 9,843 ft), especially in the Venezuelan Andes, where pastureland and permanent snowfield with yearly averages below 8 °C (46 °F) cover land above 3,000 meters (9,843 ft) in the páramos.
The highest temperature recorded was 42 °C (108 °F) in Machiques,[157] and the lowest temperature recorded was −11 °C (12 °F), reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas (Mérida state).[158]
Venezuela lies within the Neotropical realm; large portions of the country were originally covered by moist broadleaf forests. One of 17 megadiverse countries,[159] Venezuela's habitats range from the Andes Mountains in the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive llanos plains and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River Delta in the east. They include xeric scrublands in the extreme northwest and coastal mangrove forests in the northeast.[153] Its cloud forests and lowland rainforests are particularly rich.[160]
For the fungi, an account was provided by R.W.G. Dennis[163] which has been digitized and the records made available on-line as part of the Cybertruffle Robigalia database.[164] That database includes nearly 3,900 species of fungi recorded from Venezuela, but is far from complete, and the true total number of fungal species already known from Venezuela is likely higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[165]
Among plants of Venezuela, over 25,000 species of orchids are found in the country's cloud forest and lowland rainforest ecosystems.[160] These include the flor de mayo orchid (Cattleya mossiae), the national flower. Venezuela's national tree is the araguaney. The tops of the tepuis are also home to several carnivorous plants including the marsh pitcher plant, Heliamphora, and the insectivorous bromeliad, Brocchinia reducta.
Venezuela is among the top 20 countries in terms of endemism.[166] Among its animals, 23% of reptilian and 50% of amphibian species, including the Trinidad poison frog, are endemic.[166][167] Although the available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Venezuela: 1334 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possibly endemic.[168] Some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species known from Venezuela are unique to the country.[166]
Venezuela is one of the 10 most biodiverse countries on the planet, yet it is one of the leaders of deforestation due to economic and political factors. Each year, roughly 287,600 hectares of forest are permanently destroyed, and other areas are degraded by mining, oil extraction, and logging. Between 1990 and 2005, Venezuela officially lost 8.3% of its forest cover, which is about 4.3 million ha. In response, federal protections for critical habitat were implemented; for example, 20% to 33% of forested land is protected.[162] Venezuela had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.78/10, ranking it 19th globally out of 172 countries.[169] The country's biosphere reserve is part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[170] In 2003, 70% of the nation's land was under conservation management in over 200 protected areas, including 43 national parks.[171]Venezuela's 43 national parks include Canaima National Park, Morrocoy National Park, and Mochima National Park. In the far south is a reserve for the country's Yanomami tribes. Covering 32,000 square miles (82,880 square kilometres), the area is off-limits to farmers, miners, and all non-Yanomami settlers.
Valencia Lake, formerly praised by Alexander von Humboldt for its beauty, is massively polluted due to the countless sewage systems pouring residuals.[172]
Venezuela was one of the few countries that did not enter an INDC at COP21.[173][174] Many terrestrial ecosystems are considered endangered, specially the dry forest in the northern regions of the country and the coral reefs in the Caribbean coast.[175][176][177]
There are 105 protected areas in Venezuela, which cover around 26% of the country's continental, marine and insular surface.[citation needed]
Hydrography
The country is made up of three river basins: the Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Valencia, which forms an endorheic basin.[178]
On the Atlantic side it drains most of Venezuela's river waters. The largest basin in this area is the extensive Orinoco basin[179] whose surface area, close to one million km2, is greater than that of the whole of Venezuela, although it has a presence of 65% in the country.
The size of this basin - similar to that of the Danube - makes it the third largest in South America, and it gives rise to a flow of some 33,000 m3/s, making the Orinoco the third largest in the world, and also one of the most valuable from the point of view of renewable natural resources. The Rio or Brazo Casiquiare is unique in the world, as it is a natural derivation of the Orinoco that, after some 500 km in length, connects it to the Negro River, which in turn is a tributary of the Amazon.
The Orinoco receives directly or indirectly rivers such as the Ventuari, the Caura, the Caroní, the Meta, the Arauca, the Apure and many others. Other Venezuelan rivers that empty into the Atlantic are the waters of the San Juan and Cuyuní basins. Finally, there is the Amazon River, which receives the Guainía, the Negro and others. Other basins are the Gulf of Paria and the Esequibo River.
The second most important watershed is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers of this region are usually short and of scarce and irregular flow, with some exceptions such as the Catatumbo, which originates in Colombia and drains into the Maracaibo Lake basin. Among the rivers that reach the Maracaibo lake basin are the Chama, the Escalante, the Catatumbo, and the contributions of the smaller basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and Manzanares rivers.
A minimum drains to the Lake Valencia basin.[180] Of the total extension of the rivers, a total of 5400 km are navigable. Other rivers worth mentioning are the Apure, Arauca, Caura, Meta, Barima, Portuguesa, Ventuari and Zulia, among others.
The country's main lakes are Lake Maracaibo[181] -the largest in South America- open to the sea through the natural channel, but with fresh water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic system. Other noteworthy bodies of water are the Guri reservoir, the Altagracia lagoon, the Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon in the Andes.
Relief
The Venezuelan natural landscape[182] is the product of the interaction of tectonic plates[182] that since the Paleozoic have contributed to its current appearance. On the formed structures, seven physical-natural units have been modeled, differentiated in their relief and in their natural resources.
The relief of Venezuela has the following characteristics: coastline with several peninsulas[183] and islands, adenas of the Andes mountain range (north and northwest), Lake Maracaibo (between the chains, on the coast);[184]Orinoco river delta,[185] region of peneplains and plateaus (tepui, east of the Orinoco) that together form the Guyanas massif (plateaus, southeast of the country).
The oldest rock formations in South America are found in the complex basement of the Guyanas highlands[186] and in the crystalline line of the Maritime and Cordillera massifs in Venezuela. The Venezuelan part of the Guyanas Altiplano consists of a large granite block of gneiss and other crystalline Archean rocks, with underlying layers of sandstone and shale clay.[187]
The core of granite and cordillera is, to a large extent, flanked by sedimentary layers from the Cretaceous,[188] folded in an anticline structure. Between these orographic systems there are plains covered with tertiary and quaternary layers of gravel, sands and clayey marls. The depression contains lagoons and lakes, among which is that of Maracaibo, and presents, on the surface, alluvial deposits from the Quaternary.[189]
Also known as the Cordillera de la Costa, stretches along Venezuela's northern coast. This region is known for its lush tropical rainforests, stunning coastal views, and a rich variety of flora and fauna. The intermountain depressions, or valleys, between the mountain ranges are often home to fertile agricultural land and vibrant communities. These valleys offer a stark contrast to the rugged mountains that rise dramatically from the coast.
Situated in northwestern Venezuela, the Lara-Falcón Highlands exhibit a terrain defined by plateaus and rolling hills. These highlands provide a significant contrast to the surrounding lowlands and coastal areas. The relief is characterized by gently sloping plateaus that support agriculture, including coffee and cacao cultivation. This region's semi-arid climate and picturesque landscapes make it an important agricultural and tourism center.
Encompass the basin of Lake Maracaibo and the plains surrounding the Gulf of Venezuela. This region offers two distinct plains—the northern one is relatively dry, while the southern one is humid and dotted with swamps. The relief here is primarily characterized by flat terrain, with the exception of some elevated areas near the lake. Lake Maracaibo itself sits in a depression, surrounded by oil-rich lands and productive agricultural areas.[184]
The Venezuelan Andes, part of the broader Andes mountain range, offer a striking relief with towering peaks, deep valleys, and fertile intermontane basins. Dominated by these corpulent mountain ranges, including Venezuela's highest peak, Bolívar Peak, the region's rugged and picturesque landscapes are defined by its high-altitude terrain.
Coastal Mountain Range (Cordillera de la Costa) in Venezuela
The unique relief of this area finds its origins in the Last Glacial Period, where the interplay of repeated glacier advances and retreats sculpted the landscape, shaped by the cold, high-altitude climate. This glacial heritage has left a lasting imprint, with glaciers carving deep valleys and polishing rugged peaks, while sheltered intramontane valleys offer fertile soils and temperate microclimates, creating ideal conditions for agriculture and human settlement.
Los Llanos, or "the plains", are expansive sedimentary basins characterized by predominantly flat relief.[190] However, the eastern Llanos feature low-plateaus and the Unare depression, created through mesa erosion, adding diversity to the terrain. This region is subject to seasonal flooding, transforming the flat plains into a vast wetland during the rainy season. The relief here influences the region's unique ecosystems, including extensive grasslands and abundant wildlife.
The Guiana Shield boasts a varied relief shaped by geological processes over millions of years. This region encompasses peneplains, rugged mountain ranges, foothills, and the iconic tepuis, or table-top mountains. The tepuis stand as isolated, flat-topped plateaus that rise dramatically from the surrounding terrain. This unique relief contributes to the region's remarkable biodiversity and scientific significance.[186]
The Orinoco Delta's relief is characterized by a complex system of lands and waters. It consists of numerous channels, islands, and shifting sedimentary deposits. While the relief may appear relatively uniform, it conceals a dynamic environment influenced by seasonal flooding and sediment deposition. This complex deltaic relief supports diverse aquatic life and the livelihoods of Indigenous communities adapted to its ever-changing landscapes.[185]
Valleys
The valleys are undoubtedly the most important type of landscape in the Venezuelan territory,[191] not because of their spatial extension, but because they are the environment where most of the country's population and economic activities are concentrated. On the other hand, there are valleys throughout almost all the national space, except in the great sedimentary basins of the Llanos and the depression of the Maracaibo Lake, except also in the Amazonian peneplains.[192] By their modeling, the valleys of the Venezuelan territory belong mainly to two types: valleys of fluvial type and valleys of glacial type.[193] Much more frequent, the former largely dominate the latter, which are restricted to the highest parts of the Andes. Moreover, most glacial valleys are relics of a past geologic epoch, which culminated some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago.
The deep and narrow Andean valleys are very different from the wide depressions of Aragua and Carabobo, in the Cordillera de la Costa, or from the valleys nestled in the Mesas de Monagas. These examples indicate that the configuration of the local relief is decisive in identifying regional types of valleys. Likewise, due to their warm climate, the Guayana valleys are distinguished from the temperate or cold Andean valleys by their humid environment. Both are, in turn, different from the semi-arid depressions of the states of Lara and Falcón.
The Andean valleys, essentially agricultural, precociously populated but nowadays in loss of speed, do not confront the same problems of space occupation as the strongly urbanized and industrialized valleys of the central section of the Cordillera de la Costa. On the other hand, the unpopulated and practically untouched Guiana valleys are another category this area is called the Lost World (Mundo Perdido).[192]
The Andean valleys are undoubtedly the most impressive of the Venezuelan territory because of the energy of the encasing reliefs, whose summits often dominate the valley bottoms by 3,000 to 3,500 meters of relative altitude. They are also the most picturesque in terms of their style of habitat, forms of land use, handicraft production and all the traditions linked to these activities.[192]
Venezuela has a great diversity of landscapes and climates,[194] including arid and dry areas. The main desert in the country is in the state of Falcon near the city of Coro. It is now a protected park, the Médanos de Coro National Park.[195] The park is the largest of its kind in Venezuela, covering 91 square kilometres. The landscape is dotted with cacti and other xerophytic plants that can survive in humidity-free conditions near the desert.
Desert wildlife includes mostly lizards, iguanas and other reptiles. Although less frequent, the desert is home to some foxes, giant anteaters and rabbits. There are also some native bird populations, such as the sparrowhawk, tropical mockingbird, scaly dove and crested quail.
Other desert areas in the country include part of the Guajira Desert in the Guajira Municipality in the north of Zulia State[196] and facing the Gulf of Venezuela, the Médanos de Capanaparo[197] in the Santos Luzardo National Park in Apure State, the Medanos de la Isla de Zapara[198] in Zulia State, the so-called Hundición de Yay[199] in the Andrés Eloy Blanco Municipality of Lara State, and the Urumaco Formation also in Falcón State.
The Venezuelan president is elected by a vote, with direct and universal suffrage, and is both head of state and head of government. The term of office is six years, and (as of 15 February 2009) a president may be re-elected an unlimited number of times. The president appoints the vice president and decides the size and composition of the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the legislature. The president can ask the legislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can override these objections.
The president may ask the National Assembly to pass an enabling act granting the ability to rule by decree in specified policy areas; this requires a two-thirds majority in the Assembly. Since 1959, six Venezuelan presidents have been granted such powers.
The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the Asamblea Nacional ("National Assembly"). The number of members is variable – each state and the Capital district elect three representatives plus the result of dividing the state population by 1.1% of the total population of the country.[200] Three seats are reserved for representatives of Venezuela's Indigenous peoples. For the 2011–2016 period the number of seats is 165.[201] All deputies serve five-year terms.
The voting age in Venezuela is 18. Voting is not compulsory.[202]
The legal system of Venezuela belongs to the Continental Law tradition. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Tribunal Supremo de Justicia, whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a single twelve-year term. The National Electoral Council (Consejo Nacional Electoral, or CNE) is in charge of electoral processes; it is formed by five main directors elected by the National Assembly. Supreme Court president Luisa Estela Morales said in December 2009 that Venezuela had moved away from "a rigid division of powers" toward a system characterized by "intense coordination" between the branches of government. Morales clarified that each power must be independent.[203]
La Casona presidential residence in Caracas, now a museum
Administrative divisions
Map of the Venezuelan federation
Venezuela is divided into 23 states (estados), a capital district (distrito capital) corresponding to the city of Caracas, and the Federal Dependencies (Dependencias Federales, a special territory). Venezuela is further subdivided into 335 municipalities (municipios); these are subdivided into over one thousand parishes (parroquias). The states are grouped into nine administrative regions (regiones administrativas), which were established in 1969 by presidential decree.[citation needed]
The country can be further divided into ten geographical areas, some corresponding to climatic and biogeographical regions. In the north are the Venezuelan Andes and the Coro region, a mountainous tract in the northwest, holds several sierras and valleys. East of it are lowlands abutting Lake Maracaibo and the Gulf of Venezuela.[citation needed]
The Central Range runs parallel to the coast and includes the hills surrounding Caracas; the Eastern Range, separated from the Central Range by the Gulf of Cariaco, covers all of Sucre and northern Monagas. The Insular Region includes all of Venezuela's island possessions: Nueva Esparta and the various Federal Dependencies. The Orinoco Delta, which forms a triangle covering Delta Amacuro, projects northeast into the Atlantic Ocean.[citation needed]
The country maintains a claim on the territory it calls "Guayana Esequiba", the territory administered by Guyana west of the Esequibo River. In 1966 the British and Venezuelan governments signed the Geneva Agreement to resolve the conflict peacefully. The Port of Spain Protocol of 1970 set a deadline to try to resolve the issue, without success to date.[citation needed]
The 2015 parliamentary elections were held on 6 December 2015 to elect the 164 deputies and three Indigenous representatives of the National Assembly. In 2014, a series of protest and demonstrations began in Venezuela, attributed[by whom?] to inflation, violence and shortages in Venezuela. The protests were largely peaceful.[205][better source needed] The government has accused the protest of being motivated by fascists, opposition leaders, capitalism and foreign influence,[206] President Maduro acknowledged PSUV defeat but attributed the opposition's victory to an intensification of an economic war. Despite this, Maduro said, "I will stop by hook or by crook the opposition coming to power, whatever the costs, in any way".[207] In the following months, Maduro fulfilled his promise of preventing the elected National Assembly from legislating. The first steps taken by PSUV and government were the substitution of the entire Supreme Court a day after the parliamentary elections,[208] contrary to the Constitution of Venezuela, acclaimed as a fraud by the majority of the Venezuelan and international press.[209][210][211][212] The Financial Times described the function of the Supreme Court in Venezuela as "rubber stamping executive whims and vetoing legislation".[213] The PSUV government used this violation to suspend several elected opponents.[214] Maduro said that "the Amnesty law (approved by the Parliament) will not be executed" and asked the Supreme Court to declare it unconstitutional.[215]
On 16 January 2016, Maduro approved an unconstitutional economic emergency decree,[216] relegating to his own figure the legislative and executive powers, while also holding judiciary power through the fraudulent designation of judges the day after the election on 6 December 2015.[208][209][210][212] From these events, Maduro effectively controls all three branches of government. On 14 May 2016, constitutional guarantees were in fact suspended when Maduro decreed the extension of the economic emergency decree for another 60 days and declared a State of Emergency,[217] which is a clear violation of the Constitution of Venezuela[218] in the Article 338th: "The approval of the extension of States of emergency corresponds to the National Assembly." Thus, constitutional rights in Venezuela are considered suspended in fact by many publications[219][220][221] and public figures.[222][223][224]
In March 2017, the Venezuelan Supreme Court took over law making powers from the National Assembly[226] but reversed its decision the following day.[227]
Throughout most of the 20th century, Venezuela maintained friendly relations with most Latin American and Western nations. Relations between Venezuela and the United States government worsened in 2002, after the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt during which the U.S. government recognized the short-lived interim presidency of Pedro Carmona. In 2015, Venezuela was declared a national security threat by U.S. president Barack Obama.[228][229][230] Correspondingly, ties to various Latin American and Middle Eastern countries not allied to the U.S. have strengthened.[citation needed]
Venezuela seeks alternative hemispheric integration via such proposals as the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas trade proposal and the newly launched Latin American television network teleSUR. Venezuela is one of five nations in the world—along with Russia, Nicaragua, Nauru, and Syria—to have recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Venezuela was a proponent of OAS's decision to adopt its Anti-Corruption Convention[231] and is actively working in the Mercosur trade bloc to push increased trade and energy integration. Globally, it seeks a "multi-polar" world based on strengthened ties among undeveloped countries.[citation needed]
President Maduro among other Latin American leaders participating in a 2017 ALBA gathering
On 26 April 2017, Venezuela announced its intention to withdraw from the OAS.[232] Venezuelan Foreign Minister Delcy Rodríguez said that President Nicolás Maduro plans to publicly renounce Venezuela's membership on 27 April 2017. It will take two years for the country to formally leave. During this period, the country does not plan on participating in the OAS.[233]
Venezuela is involved in a long-standing disagreement about the control of the Guayana Esequiba area.
Venezuela may suffer a deterioration of its power in international affairs if the global transition to renewable energy is completed. It is ranked 151 out of 156 countries in the index of Geopolitical Gains and Losses after energy transition (GeGaLo).[234]
The Bolivarian National Armed Forces (Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana, FANB) are the unified military forces of Venezuela. It includes over 320,150 men and women, under Article 328 of the Constitution, in five components of ground, sea and air. The components of the FANB are: the Venezuelan Army, the Venezuelan Navy, the Venezuelan Air Force, the Venezuelan National Guard, and the Venezuelan National Militia. As of 2008[update], a further 600,000 soldiers were incorporated into a new branch, known as the Armed Reserve.
The president of Venezuela is the commander-in-chief of the FANB. Its main purposes are to defend the sovereign national territory of Venezuela, airspace, and islands, fight against drug trafficking, search and rescue and, in the case of a natural disaster, civil protection. All male citizens of Venezuela have a constitutional duty to register for the military service at 18, which is the age of majority.
Law and crime
In Venezuela, a person is murdered every 21 minutes.[243] Violent crimes have been so prevalent in Venezuela that the government no longer produces the crime data.[244] In 2013, the homicide rate was approximately 79 per 100,000, one of the world's highest, having quadrupled in the past 15 years with over 200,000 people murdered.[245] By 2015, it had risen to 90 per 100,000.[246] The capital Caracas has one of the greatest homicide rates of any large city in the world, with 122 homicides per 100,000 residents.[247] In 2008, polls indicated that crime was the number one concern of voters.[248] Attempts at fighting crime such as Operation Liberation of the People were implemented to crack down on gang-controlled areas[249] but, of reported criminal acts, less than 2% are prosecuted.[250] In 2017, the Financial Times noted that some of the arms procured by the government over the previous two decades had been diverted to paramilitary civilian groups and criminal syndicates.[213]
Venezuela is especially dangerous for foreign travelers and investors who are visiting. The United States Department of State and the Government of Canada have warned foreign visitors that they may be subjected to robbery, kidnapping[251] and murder, and that their own diplomatic travelers are required to travel in armored vehicles.[252][253] The United Kingdom's Foreign and Commonwealth Office has advised against all travel to Venezuela.[254] Visitors have been murdered during robberies.[255][256]
There are approximately 33 prisons holding about 50,000 inmates.[257] Venezuela's prison system is heavily overcrowded; its facilities have capacity for only 14,000 prisoners.[258]
Human rights
Human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have increasingly criticized Venezuela's human rights record, with the former organization noting in 2017 that the Chavez and subsequently the Maduro government have increasingly concentrated power in the executive branch, eroded constitutional human rights protections and allowed the government to persecute and repress its critics and opposition.[259] Other persistent concerns as noted by the report included poor prison conditions, the continuous harassment of independent media and human rights defenders by the government. In 2006, the Economist Intelligence Unit rated Venezuela a "hybrid regime" and the third least democratic regime in Latin America on the Democracy Index.[260] The Democracy index downgraded Venezuela to an authoritarian regime in 2017, citing continued increasingly dictatorial behaviors by the Maduro government.[261]
Corruption in Venezuela is high by world standards and was so for much of the 20th century. The discovery of oil worsened political corruption.[262] By the late 1970s, Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso's description of oil as "the Devil's excrement" had become a common expression in Venezuela.[263] The Corruption Perceptions Index has ranked Venezuela as one of the most corrupt countries since the survey started in 1995. The 2010 ranking placed Venezuela at number 164, out of 178 ranked countries in government transparency.[264] By 2016, the rank had increased to 166 out of 178.[265] The World Justice Project ranked Venezuela 99th out of 99 countries surveyed in its 2014 Rule of Law Index.[266]
This corruption is shown with Venezuela's significant involvement in drug trafficking, with Colombian cocaine and other drugs transiting Venezuela towards the United States and Europe. In the period 2003–2008 Venezuelan authorities seized the fifth-largest total quantity of cocaine in the world, behind Colombia, the United States, Spain and Panama.[267] In 2006, the government's agency for combating illegal drug trade in Venezuela, ONA, was incorporated into the office of the vice-president. However, many major government and military officials have been known for their involvement with drug trafficking.[268]
Economy
Almost 82 per cent of Venezuelans live in poverty, with 53 per cent in extreme poverty, unable to buy even basic foodstuffs.
– A UN special rapporteur said in February 2024 after visiting the country.[269]
Venezuela was “once among South America's wealthiest countries” before the economic meltdown under Maduro regime.[270]
“The formerly rich petro-state has seen GDP fall by 80 percent in less than a decade, driving some seven million of its citizens to flee. Most Venezuelans live on just a few dollars a month, with the health care and education systems in total disrepair and biting shortages of electricity and fuel” as of 2024, according to VOA (report from AFP).[271]
The country has a market-based mixed economy dominated by the petroleum sector,[272][273] which accounts for roughly a third of GDP, around 80% of exports, and more than half of government revenues. Per capita GDP for 2016 was estimated to be US$15,100, ranking 109th in the world.[18] Venezuela has the least expensive petrol in the world because the consumer price of petrol is heavily subsidized. The private sector controls two-thirds of Venezuela's economy.[274]
A part of the Venezuelan economy depends on remittances.
The Central Bank of Venezuela is responsible for developing monetary policy for the Venezuelan bolívar which is used as currency. The president of the Central Bank of Venezuela serves as the country's representative in the International Monetary Fund. The U.S.-based conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation claims Venezuela has the weakest property rights in the world, scoring only 5.0 on a scale of 100; expropriation without compensation is not uncommon.
As of 2011, more than 60% of Venezuela's international reserves was in gold, eight times more than the average for the region. Most of Venezuela's gold held abroad was located in London. On 25 November 2011, the first of US$11 billion of repatriated gold bullion arrived in Caracas; Chávez called the repatriation of gold a "sovereign" step that will help protect the country's foreign reserves from the turmoil in the U.S. and Europe.[275] However government policies quickly spent down this returned gold and in 2013 the government was forced to add the dollar reserves of state owned companies to those of the national bank to reassure the international bond market.[276]
Annual variation of real GDP according to the Central Bank of Venezuela (2016 preliminary)[277][278]
Manufacturing contributed 17% of GDP in 2006. Venezuela manufactures and exports heavy industry products such as steel, aluminium and cement, with production concentrated around Ciudad Guayana, near the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world and the provider of about three-quarters of Venezuela's electricity. Other notable manufacturing includes electronics and automobiles, as well as beverages, and foodstuffs. Agriculture in Venezuela accounts for approximately 3% of GDP, 10% of the labor force, and at least a quarter of Venezuela's land area. The country is not self-sufficient in most areas of agriculture.[citation needed]
Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century, Venezuela has been one of the world's leading exporters of oil, and it is a founding member of OPEC. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities, oil quickly came to dominate exports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut led to an external debt crisis and a long-running economic crisis, which saw inflation peak at 100% in 1996.[279] The 1990s also saw Venezuela experience a major banking crisis in 1994.
The recovery of oil prices after 2001 boosted the Venezuelan economy and facilitated social spending. With social programs such as the Bolivarian Missions, Venezuela initially made progress in social development in the 2000s, particularly in areas such as health, education, and poverty. Many of the social policies pursued by Chávez and his administration were jump-started by the Millennium Development Goals, eight goals that Venezuela and 188 other nations agreed to in September 2000.[280] The sustainability of the Bolivarian Missions has been questioned due to the Bolivarian state's overspending on public works and because the Chávez government did not save funds for future economic hardships, with economic issues and poverty rising as a result of their policies in the 2010s.[32][281][282] In 2003 the government of Hugo Chávez implemented currency controls after capital flight led to a devaluation of the currency. This led to the development of a parallel market of dollars in the subsequent years. The Great Recession led to a renewed economic downturn. Despite controversial data shared by the Venezuelan government showing that the country had halved malnutrition following one of the UN's Millennium Development Goals,[114][283] shortages of staple goods began to occur in Venezuela and malnutrition began to increase.[114]
Ángel Falls is one of Venezuela's top tourist attractions and the world's highest waterfall, located in the Canaima National Park.
In early 2013, Venezuela devalued its currency due to growing shortages in the country.[284][112] The shortages included, and still include, necessities such as toilet paper, milk, and flour.[113] Fears rose so high due to the toilet paper shortage that the government occupied a toilet paper factory, and continued plans to nationalize other industrial aspects like food distribution.[285][286] Venezuela's bond ratings have also decreased multiple times in 2013 due to decisions by the president Nicolás Maduro.[287] In 2016, consumer prices in Venezuela increased 800% and the economy declined by 18.6%, entering an economic depression.[288][289] Venezuela's outlook was deemed negative by most bond-rating services in 2017.[290][291] For 2018 an inflation rate of 1,000,000 percent was projected, putting Venezuela in a similar situation to that in Germany in 1923 or Zimbabwe in the late 2000s.[292]
Tourism
Tourism has been developed considerably in recent decades, particularly because of its favorable geographical position, the variety of landscapes, the richness of plant and wildlife, the culture and the tropical climate.
Margarita Island is one of the top tourist destinations. It is an island with a modern infrastructure, bordered by beaches suitable for extreme sports, and features castles, fortresses and churches of great cultural value.
Los Roques Archipelago is made up of a set of islands and keys that constitute one of the main tourist attractions in the country. With exotic crystalline beaches, Morrocoy is a national park, formed by small keys very close to the mainland, which have grown rapidly as one of the greatest tourist attractions in the Venezuelan Caribbean.[293]
Canaima National Park[294] extends over 30,000 km2 to the border with Guyana and Brazil; due to its size it is considered the sixth largest national park in the world. Its steep cliffs and waterfalls (including Angel Falls, which is the highest waterfall in the world, at 1,002 m) form spectacular landscapes.
The state of Mérida[295] is one of the main tourist centers of Venezuela. It has an extensive network of hotels not only in its capital city, but also throughout the state. Starting from the same city of Mérida is the longest and highest cable car in the world, which reaches the Pico Espejo of 4,765 m.
Empty shelves in a store in Venezuela due to shortages in 2014
Shortages occur in regulated products, such as milk, various types of meat, coffee, rice, oil, flour, butter, and other goods including basic necessities like toilet paper, personal hygiene products, and even medicine.[296][299][300] As a result of the shortages, Venezuelans must search for food, wait in lines for hours and sometimes do without certain products.[301][302][303][304][305]
A drought, combined with a lack of planning and maintenance, has caused a hydroelectricity shortage. To deal with lack of power supply, in April 2016 the Maduro government announced rolling blackouts[306] and reduced the government workweek to only Monday and Tuesday.[307] A multi-university study found that, in 2016 alone, about 75% of Venezuelans lost weight due to hunger, with the average losing about 8.6 kg (19 lbs) due to the lack of food.[308] In March 2017, Venezuela began having shortages of gasoline in some regions.[309]
Petroleum and other resources
Venezuela's exports of crude oil from January 2018 to December 2019[310]
Venezuela has the largest oil reserves, and the eighth largest natural gas reserves in the world.[311] Compared to the preceding year another 40.4% in crude oil reserves were proven in 2010, allowing Venezuela to surpass Saudi Arabia as the country with the largest reserves of this type.[312] The country's main petroleum deposits are located around and beneath Lake Maracaibo, the Gulf of Venezuela (both in Zulia), and in the Orinoco River basin (eastern Venezuela), where the country's largest reserve is located. Besides the largest conventional oil reserves and the second-largest natural gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere,[313] Venezuela has non-conventional oil deposits (extra-heavy crude oil, bitumen and tar sands) approximately equal to the world's reserves of conventional oil.[314] The electricity sector in Venezuela is one of the few to rely primarily on hydropower, and includes the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world.
In the first half of the 20th century, U.S. oil companies were heavily involved in Venezuela, initially interested only in purchasing concessions.[315] In 1943 a new government introduced a 50/50 split in profits between the government and the oil industry. In 1960, with a newly installed democratic government, Hydrocarbons Minister Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso led the creation of OPEC, the consortium of oil-producing countries aiming to support the price of oil.[316]
A map of world oil reserves according to OPEC, 2013. Venezuela has the world's largest oil reserves.
In 1973, Venezuela voted to nationalize its oil industry outright, effective 1 January 1976, with Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) taking over and presiding over a number of holding companies; in subsequent years, Venezuela built a vast refining and marketing system in the U.S. and Europe.[317] In the 1990s PDVSA became more independent from the government and presided over an apertura (opening) in which it invited in foreign investment. Under Hugo Chávez a 2001 law placed limits on foreign investment. PDVSA played a key role in the December 2002 – February 2003 national strike. As a result of the strike, around 40% of the company's workforce (around 18,000 workers) were dismissed.[318]
Venezuela is connected to the world primarily via air (Venezuela's airports include the Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetía, near Caracas and La Chinita International Airport near Maracaibo) and sea (with major seaports at La Guaira, Maracaibo and Puerto Cabello). In the south and east the Amazon rainforest region has limited cross-border transport; in the west, there is a mountainous border of over 2,213 kilometres (1,375 mi) shared with Colombia. The Orinoco River is navigable by oceangoing vessels up to 400 kilometres (250 mi) inland and connects the major industrial city of Ciudad Guayana to the Atlantic Ocean.
Venezuela has a limited national railway system, which has no active rail connections to other countries. The government of Hugo Chávez tried to invest in expanding it, but Venezuela's rail project is on hold due to Venezuela not being able to pay the $7.5 billion[clarification needed] and owing China Railway nearly $500 million.[319]
Several major cities have metro systems; the Caracas Metro has been operating since 1983. The Maracaibo Metro and Valencia Metro were opened more recently. Venezuela has a road network of nearly 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), placing the country around 45th in the world;[320] around a third of roads are paved.
Utilities
The electricity sector in Venezuela is heavily dependent on hydroelectricity, with this energy source accounting for 64% of the country's electricity generation in 2021.[310]
Demographics
Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America;[22][23] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north, especially in the capital Caracas, which is also the largest city. About 93% of the population lives in urban areas in northern Venezuela; 73% live less than 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the coastline.[321] Though almost half of Venezuela's land area lies south of the Orinoco, only 5% of Venezuelans live there. The largest and most important city south of the Orinoco is Ciudad Guayana, which is the sixth most populous conurbation.[322] Other major cities include Barquisimeto, Valencia, Maracay, Maracaibo, Barcelona-Puerto La Cruz, Mérida and San Cristóbal.
According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects[323][324] the total population was 28,199,867 in 2021. A 2014 study by sociologists of the Central University of Venezuela found over 1.5 million Venezuelans, or about 4% to 6% of the country's population, have left Venezuela since 1999.[325][326]
Ethnicity
Map showing the proportion of the Venezuelan population which has the Spanish nationality or people who are residing in Venezuela which are declared as Spanish or people with declared Iberian Spanish ancestry
The people of Venezuela come from a variety of ancestries. It is estimated that the majority of the population is of pardo, or mixed, ethnic ancestry. In the 2011 census, which Venezuelans were asked to identify themselves according to their customs and ancestry, the term pardo was excluded from the answers. The majority claimed to be moreno or white—51.6% and 43.6%, respectively.[1] Slightly more than half of the population claimed to be moreno, a term used throughout Ibero-America that in this case means "dark-skinned" or "brown-skinned", as opposed to having a lighter skin.
Ethnic minorities in Venezuela consist of groups that descend mainly from African or Indigenous peoples; 2.8% identified themselves as "black" and 0.7% as afrodescendiente (Afro-descendant), 2.6% claimed to belong to Indigenous peoples, and 1.2% answered "other races".[1]
According to an autosomal DNA study conducted in 2008 by the University of Brasília, the composition of Venezuela's population is 60.60% European, 23% Indigenous, and 16.30% African.[328]
During the colonial period and until after the Second World War, many of the European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands[329] and Spain[330] with a relevant amount of Galicians and Asturians. These immigrants from Spain had a significant cultural impact on the cuisine and customs of Venezuela.[331][332][333] These influences on Venezuela have led to the nation being called the 8th island of the Canaries.[334][335] With the start of oil exploitation in the early 20th century, companies from the United States began establishing operations in Venezuela, bringing with them U.S. citizens. Later, during and after the war, new waves of immigrants from other parts of Europe, the Middle East, and China began; many were encouraged by government-established immigration programs and lenient immigration policies.[336] During the 20th century, Venezuela, along with the rest of Latin America, received millions of immigrants from Europe.[337] This was especially true post-World War II, as a consequence of war-ridden Europe.[337][338] During the 1970s, while experiencing an oil-export boom, Venezuela received millions of immigrants from Ecuador, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic.[338] Due to the belief that this immigration influx depressed wages, some Venezuelans opposed European immigration.[338] The Venezuelan government, however, were actively recruiting immigrants from Eastern Europe to fill a need for engineers. Millions of Colombians, as well as Middle Eastern and Haitian populations would continue immigrating to Venezuela into the early 21st century.[336]
According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Venezuela hosted a population of refugee and asylum seekers from Colombia numbering 252,200 in 2007, and 10,600 new asylum seekers entered Venezuela in 2007.[339] Between 500,000 and one million illegal immigrants are estimated to be living in the country.[340]
The total Indigenous population of the country is estimated at 500 thousand people (2.8% of the total), distributed among 40 Indigenous peoples.[341] There are three uncontacted tribes living in Venezuela. The Constitution recognizes the multi-ethnic, pluri-cultural, and multilingual character of the country and includes a chapter devoted to Indigenous peoples' rights, which opened up spaces for their political inclusion at national and local level in 1999.
Most Indigenous peoples are concentrated in eight states along Venezuela's borders with Brazil, Guyana, and Colombia, and the majority groups are the Wayuu in the west, the Warao in the east, the Yanomami installed in the south, and the Pemon which are mostly in the southeast of Venezuela.
Languages
Although most residents are monolingual Spanish speakers, many languages are spoken in Venezuela. In addition to Spanish, the Constitution recognizes more than thirty Indigenous languages, including Wayuu, Warao, Pemón, and many others for the official use of the Indigenous peoples, mostly with few speakers – less than 1% of the total population. Wayuu is the most spoken Indigenous language, with 170,000 speakers.[342]
Immigrants, in addition to Spanish, speak their own languages. Chinese (400,000), Portuguese (254,000),[342] and Italian (200,000)[343] are the most-spoken languages in Venezuela after the official language of Spanish. Arabic is spoken by Lebanese and Syrian colonies on Isla de Margarita, Maracaibo, Punto Fijo, Puerto la Cruz, El Tigre, Maracay, and Caracas. Portuguese is spoken not only by the Portuguese community in Santa Elena de Uairén but also by much of the population due to its proximity to Brazil.[344] The German community speaks their native language, while the people of Colonia Tovar speak mostly an Alemannic dialect of German called alemán coloniero.
English is the most widely used foreign language in demand and is spoken by many professionals, academics, and members of the upper and middle classes as a result of the oil exploration by foreign companies, in addition to its acceptance as a lingua franca. Culturally, English is common in southern towns like El Callao, and the native English-speaking (English-creole speaking) influence is evident in folk and calypso songs from the region. Various dialects of Eastern-Caribbean English-based creoles were brought to Venezuela by Trinidadian and other British West Indies immigrants,[345] they are collectively referred to as Venezuelan English Creole. A variety of Antillean Creole is spoken by a small community in El Callao and Paria.[346] Italian language teaching is delivered by private Venezuelan schools and institutions. Other languages spoken by large communities in the country are Basque and Galician, among others.
According to a 2011 poll, 88% of the population is Christian, primarily Roman Catholic (71%), and the remaining 17% Protestant, primarily Evangelicals (in Latin America Protestants are usually called "evangélicos"). 8% of Venezuelans are irreligious. Almost 3% of the population follow another religion (1% of these people practice Santería).[347]
There are small but influential Muslim, Druze,[348][349]Buddhist, and Jewish communities. The Muslim community of more than 100,000 is concentrated among persons of Lebanese and Syrian descent living in Nueva Esparta state, Punto Fijo and the Caracas area. Venezuela is home of the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East,[350] the Druze community are estimated around 60,000,[350] and concentrated among persons of Lebanese and Syrian descent.[351][348] Buddhism is practiced by over 52,000 people. The Buddhist community is made up mainly of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean people.
The Jewish community has shrunk in recent years due to rising economic pressures and antisemitism in Venezuela,[352][353][354][355] with the population declining from 22,000 in 1999[356] to less than 7,000 in 2015.[357]
Venezuela has a national universal health care system. The current government has created a program to expand access to health care known as Misión Barrio Adentro,[358][359] although its efficiency and work conditions have been criticized.[360][361][362] As of December 2014 an estimated 80% of Barrio Adentro establishments in Venezuela are abandoned.[363][364]
Infant mortality in Venezuela was 19 deaths per 1,000 births for 2014 which was lower than the South American average (To compare: The U.S. figure was 6 deaths per 1,000 births in 2013).[18] Child malnutrition was 17%. Delta Amacuro and Amazonas had the nation's highest rates.[365] According to the United Nations, 32% of Venezuelans lacked adequate sanitation, primarily those living in rural areas.[366] Diseases ranging from diphtheria, plague, malaria,[250]typhoid fever, yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis D were present in the country.[367]Obesity was prevalent in approximately 30% of the adult population.[18]
Venezuela had a total of 150 sewage treatment plants; 13% of the population lacked access to drinking water, but this number had been dropping.[368][non-primary source needed]
During the economic crisis observed under President Maduro's presidency, medical professionals were forced to perform outdated treatments on patients.[369]
Education
Illiteracy rate in Venezuela based on data from UNESCO[370][371] and the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) of Venezuela[372]
Currently, many Venezuelan graduates seek a future abroad because of the country's troubled economy and heavy crime rate. Over 1.35 million Venezuelan college graduates have left the country since the beginning of the Bolivarian Revolution.[325][326] It is believed that nearly 12% of Venezuelans live abroad, with Ireland becoming a popular destination for students.[374] According to Claudio Bifano, president of the Venezuelan Academy of Physical, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences, more than half of all medical graduates had left Venezuela in 2013.[375]
By 2018, over half of all Venezuelan children had dropped out of school, with 58% of students quitting nationwide while areas near bordering countries saw more than 80% of their students leave.[376][377] Nationwide, about 93% of schools do not meet the minimum requirements to operate and 77% do not have utilities such as food, water or electricity.[377]
Culture
Música Llanera is the most popular folk genre, and the cowboy music, of Venezuela. Depiction of a Llanera band in 1912.
The culture of Venezuela is a melting pot made up of three main groups: The Indigenous Venezuelans, the Africans, and the Spanish.
The Africans brought in many musical influences, especially introduction of the drum. The Spanish influence predominantes due to the colonization process and the socioeconomic structure it created. Spanish influences can be seen in the country's architecture, music, religion, and language.
Venezuela was also enriched by immigration streams of Indian and European origin in the 19th century, especially from France. Most recently, immigration from the United States, Spain, Italy, and Portugal has enriched the already complex cultural mosaic.[citation needed]
Architecture
Carlos Raúl Villanueva[378] was the most important Venezuelan architect of the modern era; he designed the Central University of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and its Aula Magna. Other notable architectural works include the Capitolio, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge. In Venezuela, prehistoric man began to build useful architecture from approximately 1000 BC to the 15th century AD, in the period known as the "Neo-Indian". Neo-Indian architecture consisted of incipient constructions, such as agricultural terraces and vaults lined by stones, called mintoyes, which were used as tombs and silos for the storage of agricultural products. The Indo-Hispanic architecture is the one that begins to develop from the year 1498 AD.[379] Venezuelan colonial architecture is built from the 16th century, when Venezuela began to be a dependent colony of the Spanish Empire,[380] until 1810, when the process of Venezuelan independence began.
The architecture of this period is characterized by its discreet modesty, with the exception of some cities. The explanation lies in the socioeconomic conditions of the country. Venezuela did not offer then to the colonizers the immense riches kept by nature for later times. The simplification of technical problems, the renunciation of most of the decorative elements and variegated ostentations of fanciful baroque, the impossibility of using expensive materials and the consequent lack of craftsmen, contributed to establish a modest but well-defined physiognomy of the colonial architecture of Venezuela. During the colonial period, there were eventually confrontations between the Spanish conquerors and the barbarians and pirates that sailed along the Venezuelan coasts, in order to take over the provinces located on the coasts of the country.
Christian temples from the colonial era were constituted by an almost invariable, arrangement consisting of a rectangular plan, three naves separated by arches of alfarje roofing composed of religious architecture in colonial times. The Venezuelan society dedicated a great amount of resources to erect religious monuments comparable to those of other countries of the continent. The XVII century was of reconstruction of the Catholic churches that had been destroyed by the earthquake of 1641. In the 18th century, specifically between 1728 and 1785, the prosperity that Venezuela enjoyed due to the opening of the Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas[381] was also reflected in the construction of new architecture, especially of a religious nature.
Venezuelan literature originated soon after the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate Indigenous societies.[389] It was originally dominated by Spanish influences. Following the rise of political literature during the Venezuelan War of Independence, Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by Juan Vicente González, emerged as the first important genre in the region. Although mainly focused on narrative writing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such as Andrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro.
The Zulian gaita is also a very popular genre, generally performed during Christmas. The national dance is the joropo.[390] Venezuela has always been a melting pot of cultures and this can be seen in the richness and variety of its musical styles and dances: calipso, bambuco, fulía, cantos de pilado de maíz, cantos de lavanderas, sebucán, and maremare.[391]Teresa Carreño was a world-famous 19th century piano virtuoso. Recently, great classical music performances have come out of Venezuela. The Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra has hosted a number of excellent concerts in many European concert halls, most notably at the 2007 London Proms, and has received several honors. The orchestra is the pinnacle of El Sistema, a publicly financed, voluntary music education program now being emulated in other countries.
In the early 21st century, a movement known as "Movida Acústica Urbana" featured musicians trying to save some national traditions, creating their own original songs but using traditional instruments.[392][393] Some groups following this movement are Tambor Urbano,[394] Los Sinverguenzas, C4Trío, and Orozco Jam.[395]
Afro-Venezuelan musical traditions are most intimately related to the festivals of the "black folk saints" San Juan and St. Benedict the Moor. Specific songs are related to the different stages of their festivals and processions, when the saints start their yearly "paseo" – stroll – through the community.
Sport
The origins of baseball in Venezuela are unclear, although it is known that the sport was being played in the country by the late 19th century.[396] In the early 20th century, North American immigrants who came to Venezuela to work in the nation's oil industry helped to popularize the sport in Venezuela.[397] During the 1930s, baseball's popularity continued to rise in the country, leading to the foundation of the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League (LVBP) in 1945, and the sport would soon become the nation's most popular.[398][399]
Although not as popular in Venezuela as the rest of South America, football, spearheaded by the Venezuela national football team is gaining popularity as well. The sport is also noted for having an increased focus during the World Cup.[401] Venezuela is scheduled to host the Copa América every 40 years.[402]
Venezuela is also home to former Formula 1 driver, Pastor Maldonado.[403] Maldonado has increased the reception of Formula 1 in Venezuela, helping to popularize the sport in the country.[404]
In the Winter Sports, Cesar Baena had represented the country since 2008 in Nordic Skiing, the first South American skier to compete in a FIS Cross Country Ski World Cup on Düsseldorf 2009.
^Venezuela has been described as authoritarian by multiple sources.[3][4][5][6][7]
^Venezuela has been described as a dictatorship by multiple sources.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
^English: /ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə/VEN-ə-ZWAY-lə, Latin American Spanish:[beneˈswela]ⓘ.
^Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela.
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^"UIS.Stat". UNESCO INSTITUTE FOR STATISTICS. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
^Daniel, Ortega; Rodríguez, Francisco (October 2008). "Freed from Illiteracy? A Closer Look at Venezuela's Misión Robinson Literacy Campaign". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 57 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1086/590461. S2CID 143581685.
^ a b"Human Development Report 2009 – Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)". Hdrstats.undp.org. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
^Goodman, Joshua (31 January 2014). "Venezuela's Best and Brightest Camp on Sidewalks". ABC News. Archived from the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
^Arzt, E.; Orjeda, G.; Nobre, C.; Castilla, J.C.; Barañao, L.; Ribeiro, S.; Bifano, C.; Krieger, J.E.; Guerrero, P.C. (12 June 2014). "Capacity building: Architects of South American science" (PDF). Nature. 510 (7504): 209–212. doi:10.1038/510209a. PMID 24926500. S2CID 38221305. Retrieved 9 July 2014.
^"Deserción escolar se ubica en 58% en todo el país". La Patilla (in Spanish). 1 July 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
^ a b"Deserción escolar alcanza el 58% en todo el país". Contexto Diario (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
^Dembo, Nancy (2006). La tectónica en la obra de Carlos Raúl Villanueva: aproximación en tres tiempos (in Spanish). CDCH UCV. ISBN 978-980-00-2336-5.
^Lucca, Rafael Arráiz (15 February 2016). Venezuela: 1498-1728: Conquista y urbanización (in Spanish). Editorial Alfa. ISBN 978-84-16687-13-8.
^Gasparini, Graziano (1965). La arquitectura colonial en Venezuela (in Spanish). Ediciones Armitano.
^Ojanguren, Montserrat Gárate (1990). La Real Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas (in Spanish). Sociedad Guipuzcoana de Ediciones y Publicaciones. ISBN 978-84-7173-156-2.
^Gasparini, Graziano (1994). Coro: patrimonio mundial (in Spanish). Armitano. ISBN 978-980-216-125-6.
^Montauban, Leopoldo Jahn (1990). La Colonia Tovar y su gente (in Spanish). Banco Provincial. ISBN 978-980-07-0220-8.
^Ng 2004, p. 31.
^ a bAponte 2008, p. 45.
^ a b cTarver & Frederick 2006, p. 10.
^Fichner-Ratus 2012, p. 519.
^Silvera, Yohana (10 June 2010). "Poesía en objetos" (in Spanish). TalCualDigital. Archived from the original on 24 July 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
^"Information". Latin Trails. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
^Cortés 2013, p. 2134.
^"Key Facts Venezuela". Turpial Travel & Adventure. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
^"Rock and MAU sonará bajo las nubes de Calder". El Universal (in Spanish). 8 December 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
^Fernández B., María Gabriela (14 March 2015). "El jazz es el lenguaje universal de la música popular". El Universal. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
^Olsen, Dale; Sheehy, Daniel (2007). The Garland Handbook of Latin American Music. Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-135-90008-3.
^Christie, Jan Fairley (2014). Living politics, making music : the writings of Jan Fairley. Ashgate Publishing. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-4724-1266-9.
^Nichols & Morse 2010, p. 306.
^ a bWardrope 2003, p. 37.
^Jozsa 2013, p. 12.
^ a bGibson 2006, p. 18.
^Nichols & Morse 2010, p. 307.
^ a bAalgaard 2004, p. 54.
^"Copa America: a new cycle begins and the revolving calendar remains". CONMEBOL. 21 December 2007. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
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^Montiel, Santiago. "Formula 1 needs more attention in the United States". Spartan Newsroon. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
^"Fencer Ruben Limardo returns to hero's welcome in Venezuela". NBC Olympics. 7 August 2012. Archived from the original on 7 August 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
Bibliography
Articles
Cannon, Barry (21 June 2004). "Venezuela, April 2002: Coup or Popular Rebellion? The Myth of a United Venezuela". Bulletin of Latin American Research. 23 (3): 285–302. doi:10.1111/j.0261-3050.2004.00109.x. S2CID 56445250.
Books
Aalgaard, Wendy (2004). Venezuela in Pictures. Lerner Pub Group. ISBN 978-0-8225-1172-4.
Aponte, Pedro Rafael (2008). The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920–1960. University of Pittsburgh. ISBN 978-1-109-05320-3. Archived from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
Carroll, Rory. Comandante: Hugo Chávez's Venezuela (Penguin Books, 2014).
Chasteen, John Charles (2001). Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05048-6.
Chávez, Hugo (2004). Cumpliendo las metas del milenio (PDF) (in Spanish). CDBpublicaciones. ISBN 978-980-6456-12-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011.
Coronil, Fernando (1988). The magical state: nature, money, and modernity in Venezuela. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-11602-0.
Cortés, Carlos E. (2013). Multicultural America: A Multimedia Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-1683-6. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
Crow, JA (1980). Epic of Latin America. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04107-3.
Dickey, John Marcus (1892). Christopher Columbus and his monument Columbia: being a concordance of choice tributes to the great Genoese, his grand discovery, and his greatness of mind and purpose. Rand, McNally & Co. ISBN 978-1-4460-2044-9. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
Dydynski, Krzysztof; Beech, Charlotte (2004). Venezuela. Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 978-1-74104-197-2.
Ewell, Judith (1984). Venezuela: A Century of Change. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-0-905838-36-6.
Fichner-Ratus, Lois (2012). Understanding Art (10th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-111-83695-5.
Georgia Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments. Int'l Business Publications, USA. 2013. ISBN 978-1-4387-7443-5.
Gibson, Karen Bush (2006). Venezuela: A Question and Answer Book. Capstone. ISBN 978-0-7368-6413-8.
Gott, Richard (2005). Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution. Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-533-3.
Gregory, Desmond (1992). Brute New World: The Rediscovery of Latin America in the Early 19th Century. British American Press. ISBN 978-1-85043-567-9. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
Heritage, Andrew (December 2002). Financial Times World Desk Reference. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-7894-8805-3.
Jozsa, Frank P. Jr. (2013). Baseball beyond Borders: From Distant Lands to the Major Leagues. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-9245-3.
Kelly, Janet; Palma, Perdo A. (2006). "Chapter 10: The Syndrome of Economic Decline and the Quest for Change". In McCoy, Jennifer L.; Myers, David J. (eds.). The Unraveling of Representative Democracy in Venezuela. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8428-3.
Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. Springer. ISBN 978-0-306-46158-3.
López Maya, Margarita (2005). "Venezuela 2002–2003: Polarisation, Confrontation, and Violence". In Goumbri, Olivia Burlingame (ed.). The Venezuela Reader: The Building of a People's Democracy. Washington, D.C.: Epica Task Force. ISBN 978-0-918346-35-3.
Márquez, Laureano; Eduardo, Sanabria (2018). "La democracia pierde energía". Historieta de Venezuela: De Macuro a Maduro (1st ed.). Gráficas Pedrazas. ISBN 978-1-7328777-1-9.
Massabié, Germán (2008). Venezuela: A Petro-State Using Renewable Energies. Springer. ISBN 978-3-531-15994-2.
McBeth, B. S. (2002). Juan Vicente Gómez and the Oil Companies in Venezuela, 1908–1935. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89218-6.
Ng, Yumi (2004). Welcome to Venezuela. Gareth Stevens Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8368-3123-8. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
Nichols, Elizabeth Gackstetter; Morse, Kimberley J. (2010). Venezuela. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-569-3.
Salas, Miguel Tinker (2 August 2004). "Culture, Power, and Oil: The Experience of Venezuelan Oil Camps and the Construction of Citizenship". In Gilbert G. Gonzalez; Raul A. Fernandez; Vivian Price; David Smith; Linda Trinh Võ (eds.). Labor Versus Empire: Race, Gender, Migration. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-93528-3.
Salas, Miguel Tinker (2015). Venezuela: What Everyone Needs to KnowRG. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-978328-1.
Schincariol, Vitor Eduardo. Society and Economy in Venezuela: An Overview of the Bolivarian Period (1998-2018). (2020).
Stoan, Stephen K. (1974). Pablo Morillo and Venezuela, 1815–1820. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8142-0219-7.
Straka, Tomás, Guillermo Guzmán Mirabal, and Alejandro E. Cáceres. Historical Dictionary of Venezuela (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017).
Tarver, H. Michael; Frederick, Julia C. (2006). The History of Venezuela. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6260-7. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
Thomas, Hugh (2005). Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan. Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50204-0.
Wardrope, William (2003). Venezuela. Gareth Stevens Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8368-2369-1.
Wilpert, Gregory. Changing Venezuela by taking power: the history and policies of the Chavez government (2007) online
Warhol, Tom (2006). Tundra. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-2193-1.
Wunder, Sven (2003). Oil wealth and the fate of the forest: a comparative study of eight tropical countries. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-98667-7.
Yergin, Daniel (1991). The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-1012-6.
Zakaria, Fareed (1999). From Wealth to Power. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01035-9.
Zamora, Margarita (1993). Reading Columbus. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08297-7. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Talks and interviews
Lander, Edgardo (April 2014). "The Modern History of Venezuela (9 parts)". Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
External links
Venezuela at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Official Government Website Archived 4 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine(in Spanish)
2119億2600万ドル[19]（第81位）
44.8 [20]
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Valle de Mifafí, Mérida State
The Caracas Valley
La Casona presidential residence in Caracas, now a museum
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![The historic center of Coro, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[382] is an example of Spanish colonial architecture in Venezuela.](https://img-server.japedia.wiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Casco_Central_Santa_Ana_de_Coro%2C_estado_Falcon%2C_Venezuela.jpg/500px-Casco_Central_Santa_Ana_de_Coro%2C_estado_Falcon%2C_Venezuela.jpg)
The historic center of Coro, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[382] is an example of Spanish colonial architecture in Venezuela.
Basilica of Our Lady of Chiquinquirá, built between 1686 and completed in 1858, where is kept the colonial image of the Virgin of Chiquinquirá, in Maracaibo![St. Martin of Tours Catholic Church in Colonia Tovar, a German-style town built in the 1840s to 1850s by German immigrants[383] in Venezuela](https://img-server.japedia.wiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Iglesia_San_Martin_de_Tours_II.jpg/500px-Iglesia_San_Martin_de_Tours_II.jpg)
St. Martin of Tours Catholic Church in Colonia Tovar, a German-style town built in the 1840s to 1850s by German immigrants[383] in Venezuela![The historic center of Coro, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[382] is an example of Spanish colonial architecture in Venezuela.](https://img-server.japedia.wiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Casco_Central_Santa_Ana_de_Coro,_estado_Falcon,_Venezuela.jpg/500px-Casco_Central_Santa_Ana_de_Coro,_estado_Falcon,_Venezuela.jpg)
.jpg/500px-2952-Danzas_Guanaguanare_de_Venezuela_no_Festival_folclorico_da_Coru%C3%B1a._(8200095256).jpg)
Monumental Stadium of Caracas Simón Bolívar is used by the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League and has a capacity of approximately 40,000 spectators.
Venezuela national football team, popularly known as the "Vinotinto".jpg/500px-Estadio_Monumental_de_Caracas_Simon_Bolivar_Feb_2023_Venezuela_(5).jpg)
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Geographic data related to Venezuela at OpenStreetMap (in Swedish)
Wikimedia Atlas of Venezuela