アレクシス・サンダーソンによれば、初期のサンスクリット語文献では、ヴァイディカ派、ヴァイシュナヴァ派、シャイヴァ派、シャクタ派、サウラ派、仏教、ジャイナ教の伝統が区別されている。しかし、西暦1千年紀後半のインド人の合意は、「仏教やジャイナ教とは対照的に、ヒンドゥー教に対応する複雑な実体を概念化し、反律法主義的なシャクタ・シャイヴァ派の特定の形態だけをその枠組みから除外するようになった」。[ web 5 ]ヒンドゥー哲学のミーマーンサー学派の一部の人々は、パンチャラートリカなどのアガマはヴェーダに適合しないため無効であると考えていた。カシミールの学者の中には、秘教的なタントラの伝統をヴァイディカ・ダルマの一部と認めない者もいた。[ web 5 ] [ web 6 ]紀元500年頃に遡るアティマルガ・シャイヴァ派の苦行の伝統は、ヴェーダ派の枠組みに異議を唱え、彼らのアガマと実践は有効であるだけでなく、ヴェーダ派のものよりも優れていると主張した。[ web 7 ]しかし、サンダーソンによれば、このシャイヴァ派の苦行の伝統は、自分たちがヴェーダの伝統に真に忠実であると見なし、「バラモン教のシュルティとスムリティは、その領域において普遍的かつ唯一無二に有効であり、したがって、ヴェーダは人間にとって有効な知識を得る唯一の手段であると満場一致で主張した」という。[ web 7 ]
Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a "family of religions" rather than a single religion.[web 8] Within each tradition in Hinduism, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts, often including unique interpretations, commentaries, and derivative works that build upon shared foundational scriptures.[122][123][124] Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed",[42] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.[a][125] According to the Supreme Court of India,
Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".[126]
Part of the problem with a single definition of the term Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.[127] It is a synthesis of various traditions,[128] the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".[129]
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.[131] Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas,[132] although there are exceptions.[133] These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus,[134][135] though Louis Renou stated that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".[134][136]
インド学者のアレクシス・サンダーソンによれば、イスラム教がインドに伝来する以前、「サンスクリット語の文献では、ヴェーダ、ヴァイシュナヴァ、シャイヴァ、シャークタ、サウラ、仏教、ジャイナ教の伝統が区別されていたが、仏教やジャイナ教に対抗して、これら最初の 5 つの伝統を集合体として示す名前はなかった」。サンダーソンによれば、正式な名前がないからといって、ヒンドゥー教の概念が存在しなかったわけではない。西暦 1 千年紀後半には、仏教やジャイナ教とは異なる信仰と伝統の概念が出現した。[ web 5 ]この複雑な伝統は、特定の反律法主義的なタントラ運動を除いて、現在のヒンドゥー教のほぼすべてをそのアイデンティティとして受け入れた。[ web 5 ]当時の保守的な思想家の中には、特定のシャイヴァ、ヴァイシュナヴァ、シャークタの文献や慣習がヴェーダと一致しているかどうか、あるいは全体として無効であるかどうかを疑問視する者もいた。当時の穏健派、そして後の正統派の学者たちの大半は、多少の相違はあるものの、信仰の基盤、儀式の文法、精神的な前提、救済論は同じであるという点で意見が一致していた。「このより大きな統一感は、ヒンドゥー教と呼ばれるようになった」とサンダーソンは述べている。[ web 5 ]
All of religion is contained in the Vedanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedanta philosophy, the Dvaita, Vishishtâdvaita and Advaita; one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion: the Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism.
This inclusivism[163] was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta,[164] and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.[132]
Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation,[78] meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements[165] and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasising the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems.[78] This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west.[78] Major representatives of "Hindu modernism"[166] are Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.[167]
Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualised as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances.[311] There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents.[311][312][313] It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from animism, in which all things are themselves divine.[311] The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal, man and nature, etc. The Vedic view does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.[311][314][315]
The Hindu scriptures name celestial entities called Devas (or Devi in feminine form), which may be translated into English as gods or heavenly beings.[note 25] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.[316][317] The choice is a matter of individual preference,[318] and of regional and family traditions.[318][note 26] The multitude of Devas is considered manifestations of Brahman.[320]
↑クロスターマイヤー: 「ブラフマンは、語根bŗh = 成長する、偉大になる、に由来し、元々はヴェーダ語で人々を繁栄させる言葉と同一でした。言葉は、別の領域に住む神々に近づくための主要な手段でした。この「実体化された発話行為」という概念から、「発話行為が暗黙的にも明示的にも目的のための手段として見られる」という概念への大きなステップではありませんでした。」クロスターマイヤー 2007、p.55 は、マダヴ M. デシュパンデ (1990)、 Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds、p.4 を引用しています。
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↑Doniger 1990, pp.2–3: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
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↑Roer 1908, pp.1–5; "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) pūrva-kāṇḍa, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jñāna-kāṇḍa, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttarra-kāṇḍa or posterior part and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal Self."
12Olivelle, Patrick (1998). "Introduction". Upaniṣads. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-282292-5.
12Doniger 1990, pp.2–3: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
↑Dissanayake, Wiman (1993). Kasulis, Thomas P.; etal. (eds.). Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice. State University of New York Press. p.39. ISBN978-0-7914-1080-6. The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self
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↑Taittiriya Upanishad Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator), pp. 281–282;Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-81-208-1468-4, pp. 229–231
↑Mabry, John R. (2006). Noticing the Divine: An Introduction to Interfaith Spiritual Guidance. New York: Morehouse. pp.32–33. ISBN978-0-8192-2238-1. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
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↑Harlan, Lindsey (1992). Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives. University of California Press. pp.19–20, 48 with footnotes. ISBN978-0-520-07339-5. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
Toropov & Buckles 2011, p.. "The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities is understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality."
Espín & Nickoloff 2007, p.. "The devas are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas."
↑Bassuk, Daniel E (1987). Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man. Palgrave Macmillan. pp.2–4. ISBN978-1-349-08642-9. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
↑Hacker, Paul (1978). Schmithausen, Lambert (ed.). Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre (in German). Otto Harrassowitz. pp.424, also 405–409, 414–417. ISBN978-3-447-04860-6.
↑Kinsley, David (2005). Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol.2 (Seconded.). Thomson Gale. pp.707–708. ISBN978-0-02-865735-6.
↑McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. Oxford University Press, USA. pp.90–91. ISBN978-0-19-534713-5.
↑Hawley, John Stratton; Narayanan, Vasudha (2006). The life of Hinduism. University of California Press. p.174. ISBN978-0-520-24914-1. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
↑Kinsley, David R. (1998). Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās. Motilal Banarsidass. pp.115–119. ISBN978-81-208-1522-3. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
↑John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-521-12627-4, page 150
↑Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-81-208-0365-7, pp. 209–210
↑Reichenbach, Bruce R. (April 1989). "Karma, causation, and divine intervention". Philosophy East and West. 39 (2): 135–149 [145]. doi:10.2307/1399374. JSTOR1399374. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
↑Rajadhyaksha (1959). The six systems of Indian philosophy. p.95. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2015. Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism.
12Coward 2008, p.114: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."
↑Neville, Robert (2001). Religious truth. SUNY Press. p.51. ISBN978-0-7914-4778-9. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2015. Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals.
↑A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, ISBN978-0-86590-278-7, pp. 149–151
↑Collins, Randall (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, ISBN978-0-674-00187-9, p. 836
↑Burley, Mikel (2012). Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience. Routledge. pp.39–41. ISBN978-0-415-64887-5.;Pflueger, Lloyd (2008). Knut Jacobsen (ed.). Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga. Motilal Banarsidass. pp.38–39. ISBN978-81-208-3232-9.;Behanan, K. T. (2002). Yoga: Its Scientific Basis. Dover. pp.56–58. ISBN978-0-486-41792-9.
↑Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-81-208-3232-9, pp. 77–78
↑Rankin, John (1 June 1984). "Teaching Hinduism: Some Key Ideas". British Journal of Religious Education. 6 (3): 133–160. doi:10.1080/0141620840060306. ISSN0141-6200.
↑NK Brahma, Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā, ISBN978-8120333062, pp. ix–x
12Pandey, R (1969). Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments (2nded.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN978-81-208-0434-0.
↑Knipe, David (2015). Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition. Oxford University Press. p.52. ISBN978-0-19-939769-3.
123Kane, PV (1941). "Saṁskāra". History of Dharmasastras. Part I. Vol.II. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. pp.190–417.
12Olivelle, Patrick (2009b). Dharmasutras – The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. pp.90–91. ISBN978-0-19-955537-6.
↑Olson, Carl (2007). The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction. Rutgers University Press. pp.93–94. ISBN978-0-8135-4068-9.
↑For Vedic school, see: Smith, Brian K. (1986). "Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India". Numen. 33 (1): 65–89. doi:10.2307/3270127. JSTOR3270127.
↑For music school, see: Arnold, Alison; etal. (1999). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia. Vol.5. Routledge. p.459. ISBN978-0-8240-4946-1. For sculpture, crafts and other professions, see: Elgood, Heather (2000). Hinduism and the religious arts. Bloomsbury Academic. pp.32–134. ISBN978-0-304-70739-3.
↑Siqueira, Thomas N. (March 1935). "The Vedic Sacraments". Thought. 9 (4): 598–609. doi:10.5840/thought1935945.
↑Pechelis, Karen (2011). "Bhakti Traditions". In Frazier, Jessica; Flood, Gavin (eds.). The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies. Bloomsbury. pp.107–121. ISBN978-0-8264-9966-0.
↑Lochtefeld 2002a, pp.98–100; also see articles on karmamārga and jnanamārga
↑Sahajananda, John Martin (2014). Fully Human Fully Divine. Partridge India. p.60. ISBN978-1-4828-1955-7.
↑Huyler, Stephen (2002). Meeting God: Elements of Hindu Devotion. Yale University Press. pp.10–11, 71. ISBN978-0-300-08905-9. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
↑Gonda, Jan (1963). "The Indian Mantra". Oriens. 16: 244–297. doi:10.1163/18778372-01601016.
12Foulston, Lynn (2012). Cush, Denise; etal. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. pp.21–22, 868. ISBN978-1-135-18978-5. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
12Lutgendorf, Philip (2007). Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey. Oxford University Press. p.401. ISBN978-0-19-804220-4. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
↑Raj, Dhooleka S. (2003). Where Are You From?: Middle-Class Migrants in the Modern World. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-23382-9. JSTOR10.1525/j.ctt1pn917.
↑Lutgendorf, Philip (2007). Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey. Oxford University Press. pp.23, 262. ISBN978-0-19-804220-4. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
↑Williams, Raymond Brady (2018). Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp.84, 153–154. ISBN978-1-108-42114-0. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
↑Robinson, Bob (2011). Hindus meeting Christians. OCMS. pp.288–295. ISBN978-1-870345-39-2;Vroom, Hendrick (1996). No Other Gods. Cambridge: Eerdmans Publishing. pp.68–69. ISBN978-0-8028-4097-4.
↑Smart, Ninian (2012). The Yogi and the Devotee. Routledge. pp.52–80. ISBN978-0-415-68499-6.
↑Ardley, Jane (2015). Spirituality and Politics: Gandhian and Tibetan cases, in The Tibetan Independence Movement. Routledge. pp.ix, 98–99, 112–113. ISBN978-1-138-86264-7;Mitchell, Helen (2014). Roots of Wisdom: A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions. Cengage Learning. pp.188–189. ISBN978-1-285-19712-8.
↑Bhavasar, SN (2004). Sundararajan, K. R.; Mukerji, Bithika (eds.). Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern. Motilal Banarsidass. pp.28–29. ISBN978-81-208-1937-5.
↑Foulston, Lynn; Abbott, Stuart (2009). Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. p.155. ISBN978-1-902210-43-8.
↑Holberg 2000, Festival calendar of India, p. 120: "Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection."
↑Frazier, Jessica (2015). The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies. Bloomsbury Academic. pp.255, 271–273. ISBN978-1-4725-1151-5.
↑Sharma, Krishan; Sinha, Anil Kishore; Banerjee, Bijon Gopal (2009). Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage. Northern Book Centre. pp.3–5. ISBN978-81-89091-09-5. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
↑Maw, Geoffrey Waring (1997). Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas. Sessions Book Trust. p.7. ISBN978-1-85072-190-1. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
↑Glucklich, Ariel (2008). The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective. Oxford University Press. p.146. ISBN978-0-19-971825-2. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 10 July 2016. The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called mahatmyas [in Puranas].
↑Bharati, Agehananda (1963). "Pilgrimage in the Indian Tradition". History of Religions. 3 (1): 135–167. doi:10.1086/462476. S2CID162220544.
↑Maclean, Kama (2008). Pilgrimage and Power: The Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, 1765–1954. Oxford University Press. pp.228–229. ISBN978-0-19-971335-6. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
↑Amazzone, Laura (2012). Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power. Rowman & Littlefield. pp.43–45. ISBN978-0-7618-5314-5. Archived from the original on 11 November 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
↑Smith, Vincent Arthur (1977). Research Articles in Epigraphy, Archaeology, and Numismatics of India. Sheikh Mubarak Ali.
↑K. Krishna Murthy (1987). Early Indian Secular Architecture. Sundeep Prakashan. pp.5–16. ISBN978-81-85067-01-8.
↑Branfoot, Crispin (2008). "Imperial Frontiers: Building Sacred Space in Sixteenth-Century South India". The Art Bulletin. 90 (2). Taylor & Francis: 171–194. doi:10.1080/00043079.2008.10786389. S2CID154135978.
↑James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. pp.330–331. ISBN978-0-300-06217-5.
↑James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. pp.43–47, 67–68, 467–480. ISBN978-0-300-06217-5.
12B. Richmond (1956). Time Measurement and Calendar Construction. Brill Archive. pp.80–82. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
12Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. pp.109–110. ISBN978-0-691-12048-5. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 10 July 2016.
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12Eleanor Nesbitt (2016). Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp.122–123. ISBN978-0-19-874557-0. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
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↑Napier, A David (1987). Masks, Transformation, and Paradox. University of California Press. pp.186–187. ISBN978-0-520-04533-0.
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↑Rao, TA Gopinath (1998). Elements of Hindu iconography. Motilal Banarsidass. pp.1–8. ISBN978-81-208-0878-2.
↑Banerjea, JN (September 2004). The Development of Hindu Iconography. Kessinger. pp.247–248, 472–508. ISBN978-1-4179-5008-9.
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↑Radhakrishnan, S. (1929). Indian Philosophy, Volume 1. Muirhead library of philosophy (2nded.). London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. p.148.
↑For ahiṃsā as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the Mahābhārata see: Brockington, John (2003). "The Sanskrit Epics". Flood. p.125.
↑For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of yama as "vow of self-restraint", see: Taimni, I. K. (1961). The Science of Yoga. Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House. p.206. ISBN978-81-7059-212-9.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑Aiyar, KN (1914). "22". Thirty Minor Upanishads. Kessinger Publishing. pp.173–176. ISBN978-1-164-02641-9.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑Svatmarama; Brahmananda (2014). The Hathayogapradīpikā of Svātmārāma. verse 1.58–63, pp. 19–21.
↑Lorenzen, David (1972). The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas. University of California Press. pp.186–190. ISBN978-0-520-01842-6.
↑Narayanan, Vasudha (2007). "The Hindu Tradition". In Oxtoby, Willard G.; Segal, Alan F. (eds.). A Concise Introduction to World Religions. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-542207-8.
↑Rosen, Steven (2006). Essential Hinduism (1sted.). Westport: Praeger Publishers. p.188.
↑Chapple, Christopher Key (2009). The Bhagavad Gita (25th Anniversaryed.). State University of New York Press. pp.641–643. ISBN978-1-4384-2842-0.
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↑Das, Veena (2003). The Oxford India companion to sociology and social anthropology. Vol.1. Oxford University Press. pp.151–152. ISBN978-0-19-564582-8.
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↑Olcott, H.S. (1906). The Theosophist. Vol.XXVII. Theosophical Publishing House. pp.146 with footnote. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 10 July 2016., Quote: "It is well known that Vaishnavas abhor animal sacrifice. In this province, like nearly all Bengalis, they celebrate Durga Puja, but their ceremonies are bloodless".
↑Fuller 2004, pp.101–102, Quote: "Blood sacrifice was a clear case in point, (, , , ) sacrifice was a barbarity inconsistent with Hinduism's central tenet of non-violence. [...] Contemporary opposition to animal sacrifice rests on an old foundation, although it also stems from the very widespread influence of reformism, whose antipathy to ritual killing has spread well beyond the self-consciously nationalist political classes"..
↑Nicholson 2010, p.169, Quote: "The acceptance of the principle of non-violence has been so through that animal sacrifice among Hindus today is uncommon, and many Indians are of the opinion that such things as cow slaughter were never practiced in ancient India".
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↑Boner, Alice (1990). Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Introduction and pp. 36–37. ISBN978-81-208-0705-1.
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↑"Indonesia: Religious Freedoms Report 2010". US State Department. 2011. Retrieved 4 March 2021. The Ministry of Religious Affairs estimates that 10 million Hindus live in the country and account for approximately 90 percent of the population in Bali. Hindu minorities also reside in Central and East Kalimantan, the city of Medan (North Sumatra), South and Central Sulawesi, and Lombok (West Nusa Tenggara). Hindu groups such as Hare Krishna and followers of the Indian spiritual leader Sai Baba are present in small numbers. Some indigenous religious groups, including the "Naurus" on Seram Island in Maluku Province, incorporate Hindu and animist beliefs, and many have also adopted some Protestant teachings.
↑"Table 26, 2018 Census Data – Tables"(xlsx). Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
↑Australian Bureau of Statistics (18 January 2018). "Media Release – Census reveals Australia's religious diversity on World Religion Day". www.abs.gov.au. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
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Further reading
Encyclopedias
Dalal, Roshen (2010b). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. New Delhi: Penguin Books India. ISBN978-0-14-341421-6.
Vol. 3: Society, Religious Professionals, Religious Communities, Philosophies (2011).
Vol. 4: Historical Perspectives, Poets/Teachers/Saints, Relation to Other Religions and Traditions, Hinduism and Contemporary Issues (2012).
Vol. 5: Symbolism, Diaspora, Modern Groups and Teachers (2013).
Vol. 6: Indices (2015).
Jain, Pankaj; Sherma, Rita; Khanna, Madhu, eds. (2018). "Hinduism and Tribal Religions". Hinduism and Tribal Religions. Encyclopedia of Indian Religions. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp.1–6. doi:10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_541-1. ISBN978-94-024-1036-5.
Johnson, W. J. (2009). A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-861025-0.
Jones, Constance A.; Ryan, James D. (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. J. Gordon Melton, Series Editor. New York: Facts On File. ISBN978-0-8160-5458-9. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020.
Klostermaier, Klaus K. (1998). A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism. London: Oneworld Publications. ISBN978-1-78074-672-2.
Sullivan, Bruce M. (2001). The A to Z of Hinduism (Rev.ed.). Lanham, Md; London: Scarecrow Press. ISBN0-8108-4070-7.
Werner, Karel (1997). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism (Rev.ed.). Surrey: Curzon Press. ISBN0-7007-1049-3.
Introductory
Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-43878-0. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016.
Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN0-631-21535-2. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2023.
Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN978-1-898723-60-8.
Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002) [1987]. "Hinduism". In Kitagawa, Joseph M. (ed.). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture. London: RoutledgeCurzon. pp.3–40. ISBN0-7007-1762-5.
Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide. Oneworld Publications. ISBN978-1-78074-026-3. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020.
Knott, Kim (1998). Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-160645-8. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020.