↑ "Guatemala se suma a EEUU y también trasladará su embajada en Israel a Jerusalén" [グアテマラが米国に加わり、大使館もエルサレムに移転する]。インフォバエ（スペイン語）。 2017年12月24日。 2020年4月17日のオリジナルからアーカイブ。2017 年12 月 25 日に取得。グアテマラ大使館は1980年代までエルサレムに置かれていたが、その後テルアビブに移転した。
↑ Glassman, Ronald M. (2017), "The Political Structure of the Canaanite City-States: Monarchy and Merchant Oligarchy" , in Glassman, Ronald M. (ed.), The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States , Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 473–477 , doi : 10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_49 , ISBN978-3-319-51695-02024年4月29日にオリジナルからアーカイブされ、2023年12月1日に取得されました。
↑ Braunstein, Susan L. (2011). "The Meaning of Egyptian-Style Objects in the Late Bronze Cemeteries of Tell el-Farʿah (South)". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research . 364 (364): 1– 36. doi : 10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001 . JSTOR 10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001 . S2CID 164054005 .
↑Kuhrt, Amiele (1995). The Ancient Near East. Routledge. p.438. ISBN978-0-415-16762-8.
↑Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstoneed.). Simon & Schuster. ISBN978-0-684-86912-4.
↑Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: "...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."
↑The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995Archived 9 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."
↑Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp.146–147: Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power.
12Finkelstein, Israel (2013). The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel. pp.65–66, 73, 74, 78, 87–94. ISBN978-1-58983-911-3. OCLC880456140.
↑Finkelstein, Israel (1 November 2011). "Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria". Tel Aviv. 38 (2): 194–207. doi:10.1179/033443511x13099584885303. ISSN0334-4355. S2CID128814117.
↑Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p.174. ISBN978-1-84127-201-6. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
12Broshi, M., & Finkelstein, I. (1992). "The Population of Palestine in Iron Age II"Archived 5 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 287(1), 47–60.
↑Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p.307: "Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied."
↑Lipschits, Oded (1999). "The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule". Tel Aviv. 26 (2): 155–190. doi:10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155. ISSN0334-4355.
↑Wheeler, P. (2017). "Review of the book Song of Exile: The Enduring Mystery of Psalm 137, by David W. Stowe". The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. 79 (4): 696–697. doi:10.1353/cbq.2017.0092. S2CID171830838.
12"Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule". Biu.ac.il. Archived from the original on 16 January 1999. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
↑Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103
↑Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p.355. ISBN978-0-567-08998-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
↑Helyer, Larry R.; McDonald, Lee Martin (2013). "The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era". In Green, Joel B.; McDonald, Lee Martin (eds.). The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts. Baker Academic. pp.45–47. ISBN978-0-8010-9861-1. OCLC961153992. The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty... Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus') primary accomplishment was annexing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains
↑Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. p.226. ISBN978-0-674-39731-6. The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain... The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus... it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border... and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there.
↑Ben-Eliyahu, Eyal (30 April 2019). Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity. Univ of California Press. p.13. ISBN978-0-520-29360-1. OCLC1103519319. From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus's prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan.
12Schwartz, Seth (2014). The ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press. pp.85–86. ISBN978-1-107-04127-1. OCLC863044259. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024. The year 70 ce marked transformations in demography, politics, Jewish civic status, Palestinian and more general Jewish economic and social structures, Jewish religious life beyond the sacrificial cult, and even Roman politics and the topography of the city of Rome itself. [...] The Revolt's failure had, to begin with, a demographic impact on the Jews of Palestine; many died in battle and as a result of siege conditions, not only in Jerusalem. [...] As indicated above, the figures for captives are conceivably more reliable. If 97,000 is roughly correct as a total for the war, it would mean that a huge percentage of the population was removed from the country, or at the very least displaced from their homes.
↑Werner Eck, "Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen", Novum Testamentum 55 (2013): 1–21
↑Raviv, Dvir; Ben David, Chaim (2021). "Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 34 (2): 585–607. doi:10.1017/S1047759421000271. ISSN1047-7594. S2CID245512193. Scholars have long doubted the historical accuracy of Cassius Dio's account of the consequences of the Bar Kokhba War (Roman History 69.14). According to this text, considered the most reliable literary source for the Second Jewish Revolt, the war encompassed all of Judea: the Romans destroyed 985 villages and 50 fortresses, and killed 580,000 rebels. This article reassesses Cassius Dio's figures by drawing on new evidence from excavations and surveys in Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. Three research methods are combined: an ethno-archaeological comparison with the settlement picture in the Ottoman Period, comparison with similar settlement studies in the Galilee, and an evaluation of settled sites from the Middle Roman Period (70–136 CE). The study demonstrates the potential contribution of the archaeological record to this issue and supports the view of Cassius Dio's demographic data as a reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation.
12Mor, Menahem (18 April 2016). The Second Jewish Revolt. BRILL. pp.483–484. doi:10.1163/9789004314634. ISBN978-90-04-31463-4. Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the sikarikon laws were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.
↑Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.
↑H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN978-0-674-39731-6, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."
↑Ariel Lewin. The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighbouring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." ISBN978-0-89236-800-6
↑Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (1996). Atlas of Jewish History. Routledge. p.58. ISBN978-0-415-08800-8.
↑Lehmann, Clayton Miles (18 January 2007). "Palestine". Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 10 November 2007. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
↑Judaism in late antiquity, Jacob Neusner, Bertold Spuler, Hady R Idris, Brill, 2001, p. 155
↑הר, משה דוד (2022). "היהודים בארץ-ישראל בימי האימפריה הרומית הנוצרית" [The Jews in the Land of Israel in the Days of the Christian Roman Empire]. ארץ-ישראל בשלהי העת העתיקה: מבואות ומחקרים[Eretz Israel in Late Antiquity: Introductions and Studies] (in Hebrew). Vol.1. ירושלים: יד יצחק בן-צבי. pp.210–212. ISBN978-965-217-444-4.
12Ehrlich, Michael (2022). The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800. Arc Humanities Press. pp.3–4. ISBN978-1-64189-222-3. OCLC1302180905. The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.
↑David Goodblatt (2006). "The Political and Social History of the Jewish Community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Steven Katz (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol.IV. Cambridge University Press. pp.404–430. ISBN978-0-521-77248-8. Few would disagree that, in the century and a half before our period begins, the Jewish population of Judah () suffered a serious blow from which it never recovered. The destruction of the Jewish metropolis of Jerusalem and its environs and the eventual refounding of the city... had lasting repercussions. [...] However, in other parts of Palestine the Jewish population remained strong [...] What does seem clear is a different kind of change. Immigration of Christians and the conversion of pagans, Samaritans and Jews eventually produced a Christian majority
↑Bar, Doron (2003). "The Christianisation of Rural Palestine during Late Antiquity". The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 54 (3): 401–421. doi:10.1017/s0022046903007309. ISSN0022-0469. The dominant view of the history of Palestine during the Byzantine period links the early phases of the consecration of the land during the fourth century and the substantial external financial investment that accompanied the building of churches on holy sites on the one hand with the Christianisation of the population on the other. Churches were erected primarily at the holy sites, 12 while at the same time Palestine's position and unique status as the Christian 'Holy Land' became more firmly rooted. All this, coupled with immigration and conversion, allegedly meant that the Christianisation of Palestine took place much more rapidly than that of other areas of the Roman empire, brought in its wake the annihilation of the pagan cults and meant that by the middle of the fifth century there was a clear Christian majority.
↑Kohen, Elli (2007). History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire. University Press of America. pp.26–31. ISBN978-0-7618-3623-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
↑"Roman Palestine". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
12לוי-רובין, מילכה; Levy-Rubin, Milka (2006). "The Influence of the Muslim Conquest on the Settlement Pattern of Palestine during the Early Muslim Period / הכיבוש כמעצב מפת היישוב של ארץ-ישראל בתקופה המוסלמית הקדומה". Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה (121): 53–78. ISSN0334-4657. JSTOR23407269.
12Ellenblum, Ronnie (2010). Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-511-58534-0. OCLC958547332. From the data given above it can be concluded that the Muslim population of Central Samaria, during the early Muslim period, was not an autochthonous population which had converted to Christianity. They arrived there either by way of migration or as a result of a process of sedentarization of the nomads who had filled the vacuum created by the departing Samaritans at the end of the Byzantine period [...] To sum up: in the only rural region in Palestine in which, according to all the written and archeological sources, the process of Islamization was completed already in the twelfth century, there occurred events consistent with the model propounded by Levtzion and Vryonis: the region was abandoned by its original sedentary population and the vacuum was apparently filled by nomads who, at a later stage, gradually became sedentarized
↑Al-Fasi, D. (1936). Solomon L. Skoss (ed.). The Hebrew-Arabic Dictionary of the Bible, Known as 'Kitāb Jāmiʿ al-Alfāẓ' (Agron) (in Hebrew). Vol.1. New Haven: Yale University Press. p.xxxix–xl (Introduction).
↑Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-59984-9.
12Gil, Moshe (1992). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. p.14. ISBN978-0-521-59984-9. Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
↑Broshi, Magen (1979). "The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 236 (236): 1–10. doi:10.2307/1356664. ISSN0003-097X. JSTOR1356664. S2CID24341643.
↑"crusades". Oxford English Dictionary (onlineed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
12Kramer, Gudrun (2008). A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel. Princeton University Press. p.376. ISBN978-0-691-11897-0.
12Joel Rappel, History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), vol. 2, p. 531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned...."
↑D. Tamar, "On the Jews of Safed in the Days of the Ottoman Conquest" Cathedra 11 (1979), cited Dan Ben Amos, Dov Noy (eds.),Folktales of the Jews, V. 3 (Tales from Arab Lands), Jewish Publication Society 2011 p.61, n.3: Tamar . .challenges David's conclusion concerning the severity of the riots against the Jews, arguing that the support of the Egyptian Jews saved the community of Safed from destruction'.
↑The Solomon Goldman lectures. Spertus College of Judaica Press. 1999. p.56. ISBN978-0-935982-57-2. The Turks' conquest of the city in 1517, was marked by a violent pogrom of murder, rape, and plunder of Jewish homes. The surviving Jews fled to the "land of Beirut", not to return until 1533.
↑Toby Green (2007). Inquisition; The Reign of Fear. Macmillan Press ISBN978-1-4050-8873-2 pp. xv–xix.
↑Alfassá, Shelomo (17 August 2007). "Sephardic Contributions to the Development of the State of Israel"(PDF). Alfassa.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
↑Cane, Peter; Conaghan, Joanne (2008). Millet system – Oxford Reference. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199290543.001.0001. ISBN978-0-19-929054-3.
↑Kieser, Hans-Lukas (27 October 2006). Turkey Beyond Nationalism: Towards Post-Nationalist Identities. I.B.Tauris. ISBN978-0-85771-757-3.
↑H. Inalcik; The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600, Phoenix Press, (2001)
↑"EARLY MODERN JEWISH HISTORY: Overview» 5. Ottoman Empire". jewishhistory.research.wesleyan.edu. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
↑Akbar, M. J. (2003), The shade of swords: jihad and the conflict between Islam and Christianity, p.89
↑L. Stavrianos; The Balkans since 1453, NYU Press (2000)
↑Eisen, Yosef (2004). Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present. Targum Press. p.700. ISBN978-1-56871-323-6.
↑Morgenstern, Arie (2006). Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel. Oxford University Press. p.304. ISBN978-0-19-530578-4.
↑Barnai, Jacob (1992). The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: Under the Patronage of the Istanbul committee of Officials for Palestine. University Alabama Press. p.320. ISBN978-0-8173-0572-7.
↑"Palestine – Ottoman rule". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
↑Macalister, R. A. Stewart; Masterman, E. W. G. (1906). "The Modern Inhabitants of Palestine". Quarterly Statement – Palestine Exploration Fund: 40.
↑Halpern, Ben (1998). Zionism and the creation of a new society. Reinharz, Jehuda. Oxford University Press. pp.53–54. ISBN978-0-585-18273-5. OCLC44960036.
↑Mandel, Neville J. (1974). "Ottoman Policy and Restrictions on Jewish Settlement in Palestine: 1881–1908: Part I"(PDF). Middle Eastern Studies. 10 (3): 312–332. doi:10.1080/00263207408700278. ISSN0026-3206. Archived(PDF) from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
↑Levine, Aaron (2014). Russian Jews and the 1917 Revolution(PDF). p.14. Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
↑Hebrew wasn't spoken for 2,000 years. Here's how it was revived
↑Stein 2003, p.88. "As with the First Aliyah, most Second Aliyah migrants were non-Zionist orthodox Jews..."
↑Moris, Beni (2001). Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 (1. Vintage Booksed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN978-0-679-74475-7. Many of these newcomers possessed a mixture of socialist and nationalist values, and they eventually succeeded in setting up a separate Jewish economy, based wholly on Jewish labor.
↑Moris, Beni (2001). Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 (1. Vintage Booksed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN978-0-679-74475-7. Another major cause of antagonism was the labor controversy. The hard core of Second Aliyah socialists, who were to become the Yishuv's leaders in the 1920s and 1930s, believed that the settler economy must not depend on or exploit Arab labor... But, in reality, rather than "meshing," the nationalist ethos had simply overpowered and driven out the socialist ethos... There were other reasons for the "conquest of labor." The socialists of the Second Aliyah used the term to denote three things: overcoming the Jews' traditional remove from agricultural labor and helping them transform into the "new Jews"; struggling against employers for better conditions; and replacing Arabs with Jews in manual jobs.
↑Goldstein, Yossi.Bar Giora and Ha’S̄homer, 1907-1918. Jerusalem, 1994.
↑Gelvin, James (2014) [2002]. The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War (3ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-85289-0. Archived from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
↑Macintyre, Donald (26 May 2005). "The birth of modern Israel: A scrap of paper that changed history". The Independent. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
↑Yapp, M.E. (1987). The Making of the Modern Near East 1792–1923. Longman. p.290. ISBN978-0-582-49380-3.
↑Avi Shlaim (2001). "PROLOGUE: THE ZIONIST FOUNDATIONS". The Iron Wall. W.W. Norton. ISBN978-0-393-32112-8. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
↑Schechtman, Joseph B. (2007). "Jewish Legion". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol.11. Macmillan Reference. p.304. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
↑"The Covenant of the League of Nations". Article 22. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2012.
↑"Mandate for Palestine," Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972
↑Scharfstein 1996, p.269. "During the First and Second Aliyot, there were many Arab attacks against Jewish settlements ... In 1920, Hashomer was disbanded and Haganah ("The Defense") was established."
↑"League of Nations: The Mandate for Palestine, July 24, 1922". Modern History Sourcebook. 24 July 1922. Archived from the original on 4 August 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2007.
↑Shaw, J. V. W. (1991) [1946]. "Chapter VI: Population". A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. Vol.I (Reprinted.). Institute for Palestine Studies. p.148. ISBN978-0-88728-213-3. OCLC311797790. Archived from the original on 27 August 2013.
↑"Report to the League of Nations on Palestine and Transjordan, 1937". British Government. 1937. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
↑Walter Laqueur (2009). A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN978-0-307-53085-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
↑Hughes, M (2009). "The banality of brutality: British armed forces and the repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39"(PDF). English Historical Review. CXXIV (507): 314–354. doi:10.1093/ehr/cep002. Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 February 2016.
↑Levenberg, Haim (1993). Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine: 1945–1948. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-3439-5, pp. 74–76
↑Khalidi, Walid (1987). From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948. Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN978-0-88728-155-6
↑Motti Golani (2013). Palestine Between Politics and Terror, 1945–1947. UPNE. p.130. ISBN978-1-61168-388-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
↑Cohen, Michael J (2014). Britain's Moment in Palestine:Retrospect and Perspectives, 1917–1948 (1sted.). Routledge. p.474. ISBN978-0-415-72985-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
Smith, Paul J. (2007). The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First. M. E. Sharpe. p.27.
Louis, William Roger (1986). The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism. Oxford University Press. p.430.
↑"British Colonial Office Statement upon Termination of the Mandate for Palestine – English (1948)". ecf.org.il. p.10. Retrieved 20 June 2024.
↑"Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine". United Nations. 29 November 1947. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2017.
Avneri, Aryeh L. (1984). The Claim of Dispossession: Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs, 1878–1948. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87855-964-0. Retrieved 2 May 2009, p. 224.
Stein, Kenneth W. (1987) [Original in 1984]. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4178-5. pp. 3–4, 247
Imseis 2021, pp.13–14: "As to territorial boundaries, under the plan the Jewish State was allotted approximately 57 per cent of the total area of Palestine even though the Jewish population comprised only 33 per cent of the country. In addition, according to British records relied upon by the ad hoc committee, the Jewish population possessed registered ownership of only 5.6 per cent of Palestine, and was eclipsed by the Arabs in land ownership in every one of Palestine's 16 sub-districts. Moreover, the quality of the land granted to the proposed Jewish state was highly skewed in its favour. UNSCOP reported that under its majority plan "[t]he Jews will have the more economically developed part of the country embracing practically the whole of the citrus-producing area"—Palestine's staple export crop—even though approximately half of the citrus-bearing land was owned by the Arabs. In addition, according to updated British records submitted to the ad hoc committee's two sub-committees, "of the irrigated, cultivable areas" of the country, 84 per cent would be in the Jewish State and 16 per cent would be in the Arab State"."
Morris 2008, p.75: "The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv's settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community."
12Morris 2008, p.396: "The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal."
↑Matthews, John: Israel-Palestine land divisionArchived 5 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
↑Imseis 2021, pp.14–15: "Although the Zionists had coveted the whole of Palestine, the Jewish Agency leadership pragmatically, if grudgingly, accepted Resolution 181(II). Although they were of the view that the Jewish national home promised in the Mandate was equivalent to a Jewish state, they well understood that such a claim could not be maintained under prevailing international law. [...] Based on its own terms, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that the partition plan privileged European interests over those of Palestine's indigenous people and, as such, was an embodiment of the Eurocentricity of the international system that was allegedly a thing of the past. For this reason, the Arabs took a more principled position in line with prevailing international law, rejecting partition outright. This rejection has disingenuously been presented in some of the literature as indicative of political intransigence,69 and even hostility towards the Jews as Jews."
↑Morris 2008, p. 66: at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews.", p. 67: at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression," "without mercy." The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition.", p. 72: at December 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.""
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↑Hakohen, Devorah (2003). Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After. Syracuse University Press. ISBN978-0-8156-2969-6.; for ma'abarot population, see p. 269.
↑Clive Jones, Emma Murphy, Israel: Challenges to Identity, Democracy, and the State,Routledge 2002 p. 37: "Housing units earmarked for the Oriental Jews were often reallocated to European Jewish immigrants; Consigning Oriental Jews to the privations of ma'aborot (transit camps) for longer periods."
↑Kameel B. Nasr (1996). Arab and Israeli Terrorism: The Causes and Effects of Political Violence, 1936–1993. McFarland. pp.40–. ISBN978-0-7864-3105-2. Fedayeen to attack...almost always against civilians
↑Isaac Alteras (1993). Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli Relations, 1953–1960. University Press of Florida. pp.192–. ISBN978-0-8130-1205-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018. the removal of the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran at the entrance of the Gulf of Aqaba. The blockade closed Israel's sea lane to East Africa and the Far East, hindering the development of Israel's southern port of Eilat and its hinterland, the Nege. Another important objective of the Israeli war plan was the elimination of the terrorist bases in the Gaza Strip, from which daily fedayeen incursions into Israel made life unbearable for its southern population. And last but not least, the concentration of the Egyptian forces in the Sinai Peninsula, armed with the newly acquired weapons from the Soviet bloc, prepared for an attack on Israel. Here, Ben-Gurion believed, was a time bomb that had to be defused before it was too late. Reaching the Suez Canal did not figure at all in Israel's war objectives.
↑Dominic Joseph Caraccilo (2011). Beyond Guns and Steel: A War Termination Strategy. ABC-CLIO. pp.113–. ISBN978-0-313-39149-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018. The escalation continued with the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran, and Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal in July 1956. On October 14, Nasser made clear his intent:"I am not solely fighting against Israel itself. My task is to deliver the Arab world from destruction through Israel's intrigue, which has its roots abroad. Our hatred is very strong. There is no sense in talking about peace with Israel. There is not even the smallest place for negotiations." Less than two weeks later, on October 25, Egypt signed a tripartite agreement with Syria and Jordan placing Nasser in command of all three armies. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, combined with the increased fedayeen attacks and the bellicosity of recent Arab statements, prompted Israel, with the backing of Britain and France, to attack Egypt on October 29, 1956.
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↑American Friends of the Tel Aviv University, Earthquake Experts at Tel Aviv University Turn to History for Guidance (4 October 2007). Quote: The major ones were recorded along the Jordan Valley in the years 31 B.C.E., 363 C.E., 749 C.E., and 1033 C.E. "So roughly, we are talking about an interval of every 400 years. If we follow the patterns of nature, a major quake should be expected any time because almost a whole millennium has passed since the last strong earthquake of 1033." (Tel Aviv University Associate Professor Dr. Shmuel (Shmulik) Marco). Archived 11 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
12Zafrir Renat, Israel Is Due, and Ill Prepared, for Major Earthquake, Haaretz, 15 January 2010. "On average, a destructive earthquake takes place in Israel once every 80 years, causing serious casualties and damage." Archived 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
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↑In 1996, direct elections for the prime minister were inaugurated, but the system was declared unsatisfactory and the old one reinstated. See "Israel's election process explained". BBC News. 23 January 2003. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
↑"The Electoral System in Israel". The Knesset. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
↑סגל, עמית (2021). סיפורה של הפוליטיקה הישראלית: מבן גוריון ועד בנט (in Hebrew). Hotsaʼat ʻAmit Segal. ISBN978-965-599-597-8.
↑Jewish settlers can vote in Israeli elections, though West Bank is officially not Israel, Fox News, February 2015: "When Israelis go to the polls next month, tens of thousands of Jewish settlers in the West Bank will also be casting votes, even though they do not live on what is sovereign Israeli territory. This exception in a country that doesn't allow absentee voting for citizens living abroad is a telling reflection of Israel's somewhat ambiguous and highly contentious claim to the territory, which has been under military occupation for almost a half century."
↑The Social Composition of the 20th Knesset, Israeli Democracy Institute, 30 March 2015
↑Halbfinger, David M.; McCann, Allison (28 February 2020). "As Israel Votes Again (and Again), Arabs See an Opportunity". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
↑Abu Much, Afif (7 November 2022). "Arab Israeli parties trade blame for election fiasco". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
↑Charbit, Denis (2014). "Israel's Self-Restrained Secularism from the 1947 Status Quo Letter to the Present". In Berlinerblau, Jacques; Fainberg, Sarah; Nou, Aurora (eds.). Secularism on the Edge: Rethinking Church-State Relations in the United States, France, and Israel. Palgrave Macmillan. pp.167–169. ISBN978-1-137-38115-6. The compromise, therefore, was to choose constructive ambiguity: as surprising as it may seem, there is no law that declares Judaism the official religion of Israel. However, there is no other law that declares Israel's neutrality toward all confessions. Judaism is not recognized as the official religion of the state, and even though the Jewish, Muslim and Christian clergy receive their salaries from the state, this fact does not make Israel a neutral state. This apparent pluralism cannot dissimulate the fact that Israel displays a clear and undoubtedly hierarchical pluralism in religious matters.... It is important to note that from a multicultural point of view, this self-restrained secularism allows Muslim law to be practiced in Israel for personal matters of the Muslim community. As surprising as it seems, if not paradoxical for a state in war, Israel is the only Western democratic country in which Sharia enjoys such an official status.
↑Sharot, Stephen (2007). "Judaism in Israel: Public Religion, Neo-Traditionalism, Messianism, and Ethno-Religious Conflict". In Beckford, James A.; Demerath, Jay (eds.). The Sage Handbook of the Sociology of Religion. Sage Publications. pp.671–672. ISBN978-1-4129-1195-5. It is true that Jewish Israelis, and secular Israelis in particular, conceive of religion as shaped by a state-sponsored religious establishment. There is no formal state religion in Israel, but the state gives its official recognition and financial support to particular religious communities, Jewish, Islamic and Christian, whose religious authorities and courts are empowered to deal with matters of personal status and family law, such as marriage, divorce, and alimony, that are binding on all members of the communities.
↑Jacoby, Tami Amanda (2005). Women in Zones of Conflict: Power and Resistance in Israel. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp.53–54. ISBN978-0-7735-2993-9. Although there is no official religion in Israel, there is also no clear separation between religion and state. In Israeli public life, tensions frequently arise among different streams of Judaism: Ultra-Orthodox, National-Religious, Mesorati (Conservative), Reconstructionist Progressive (Reform), and varying combinations of traditionalism and non-observance. Despite this variety in religious observances in society, Orthodox Judaism prevails institutionally over the other streams. This boundary is an historical consequence of the unique evolution of the relationship between Israel nationalism and state building.... Since the founding period, in order to defuse religious tensions, the State of Israel has adopted what is known as the 'status quo,' an unwritten agreement stipulating that no further changes would be made in the status of religion, and that conflict between the observant and non-observant sectors would be handled circumstantially. The 'status quo' has since pertained to the legal status of both religious and secular Jews in Israel. This situation was designed to appease the religious sector, and has been upheld indefinitely through the disproportionate power of religious political parties in all subsequent coalition governments.... On one hand, the Declaration of Independence adopted in 1948 explicitly guarantees freedom of religion. On the other, it simultaneously prevents the separation of religion and state in Israel.
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↑See for example:* Hajjar, Lisa (2005). Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza. University of California Press. p.96. ISBN978-0-520-24194-7. The Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza is the longest military occupation in modern times.* Anderson, Perry (July–August 2001). "Editorial: Scurrying Towards Bethlehem". New Left Review. 10. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2015. longest official military occupation of modern history—currently entering its thirty-fifth year* Makdisi, Saree (2010). Palestine Inside Out: An Everyday Occupation. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN978-0-393-33844-7. longest-lasting military occupation of the modern age* Kretzmer, David (Spring 2012). "The law of belligerent occupation in the Supreme Court of Israel"(PDF). International Review of the Red Cross. 94 (885): 207–236. doi:10.1017/S1816383112000446. S2CID32105258. SSRN2657530. This is probably the longest occupation in modern international relations, and it holds a central place in all literature on the law of belligerent occupation since the early 1970s* Alexandrowicz, Ra'anan (24 January 2012). "The Justice of Occupation". The New York Times (opinion). Israel is the only modern state that has held territories under military occupation for over four decades* Weill, Sharon (2014). The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law. Oxford University Press. p.22. ISBN978-0-19-968542-4. Although the basic philosophy behind the law of military occupation is that it is a temporary situation modem occupations have well demonstrated that rien ne dure comme le provisoire A significant number of post-1945 occupations have lasted more than two decades such as the occupations of Namibia by South Africa and of East Timor by Indonesia as well as the ongoing occupations of Northern Cyprus by Turkey and of Western Sahara by Morocco. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories, which is the longest in all occupation's history has already entered its fifth decade.* Azarova, Valentina. 2017, Israel's Unlawfully Prolonged Occupation: Consequences under an Integrated Legal Framework, European Council on Foreign Affairs Policy Brief: "June 2017 marks 50 years of Israel's belligerent occupation of Palestinian territory, making it the longest occupation in modern history."
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↑Yiftachel, O. (1999). "'Ethnocracy': The Politics of Judaizing Israel/Palestine"(PDF). Constellations. 6 (3): 364–390. doi:10.1111/1467-8675.00151. Israel's political structure and settlement activity have [...] in effect undermined the existence of universal suffrage (as Jewish settlers in the Occupied Territories can vote to the parliament that governs them, but their Palestinian neighbours cannot).
↑Ghanem, A. A.; Rouhana, N.; Yiftachel, O. (1998). "Questioning" ethnic democracy": A response to Sammy Smooha". Israel Studies. 3 (2): 253–267. doi:10.2979/ISR.1998.3.2.253. JSTOR30245721. S2CID3524173. settlers remain fully enfranchised Israeli citizens while their Palestinian neighbors have no voting rights and no impact on Israeli policies
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↑"The occupied Palestinian territories: Dignity Denied". International Committee of the Red Cross. 13 December 2007.
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↑"Human Rights in Palestine and Other Occupied Arab Territories: Report of the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict"(PDF). United Nations Human Rights Council. 15 September 2009. p.85.
↑"Israel/Occupied Territories: Road to nowhere". Amnesty International. 1 December 2006.
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↑Jerome Slater (1 October 2020). Mythologies Without End: The US, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1917–2020. Oxford University Press. p.15. ISBN978-0-19-045909-3. It is now clear that Israel is a true democracy in its broadest sense only for its Jewish citizens. The Arab-Israeli (or, as some prefer, the Palestinian-Israeli) peoples, roughly 20 per cent of the total population of Israel its pre-1967 boundaries, are citizens and have voting rights, but they face political, economic, and social discrimination. And, of course, Israeli democracy is inapplicable to the nearly 4 million Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank and Gaza, conquered by Israel in June 1967, who are occupied, repressed, and in many ways, directly and indirectly, effectively ruled by Israel.
↑Ben White (15 January 2012). Palestinians in Israel: Segregation, Discrimination and Democracy. Pluto Press. ISBN978-0-7453-3228-4.
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↑'With respect to Israeli security forces in the West Bank: credible reports of unlawful or arbitrary killings due to unnecessary or disproportionate use of force by Israeli officials; torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment by Israeli officials; arbitrary arrest or detention; arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy; restrictions on free expression and media, including violence, threats of violence, unjustified arrests and prosecutions against journalists, and censorship; restrictions on internet freedom; restrictions on Palestinians residing in Jerusalem, including arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy, family, and home; substantial interference with the rights of peaceful assembly and freedom of association, including harassment of nongovernmental organizations; and restrictions on freedom of movement and residence.' 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Israel, West Bank and Gaza,United States Department of State 12 April 2022
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↑Barak-Erez, Daphne (1 July 2006). "Israel: The security barrier—between international law, constitutional law, and domestic judicial review". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 4 (3): 548. doi:10.1093/icon/mol021. The real controversy hovering over all the litigation on the security barrier concerns the fate of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories. Since 1967, Israel has allowed and even encouraged its citizens to live in the new settlements established in the territories, motivated by religious and national sentiments attached to the history of the Jewish nation in the land of Israel. This policy has also been justified in terms of security interests, taking into consideration the dangerous geographic circumstances of Israel before 1967 (where Israeli areas on the Mediterranean coast were potentially threatened by Jordanian control of the West Bank ridge). The international community, for its part, has viewed this policy as patently illegal, based on the provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention that prohibit moving populations to or from territories under occupation.
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↑Mansour 2024, p.134: "It stated that 'all Palestinians living under Israeli rule are treated as inferior in right and status to Jews who live the very same area'; the gist was in the title: 'A regime of Jewish supremacy from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea: This is apartheid' (B'Tselem 2021)"
↑University Network for Human Rights 2025: "This report analyzes the crime of apartheid and its application to Israel's policies and practices in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT)1 before and after October 7, 2023. Our analysis relies on a close examination of more than 25 credible human rights reports and judicial opinions from institutions and individuals with expertise in the region. Consistent with the findings of these experts, we conclude that Israel has committed and continues to commit the crime of apartheid as defined by the 1973 United Nations International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid (Apartheid Convention)"
12Rosenfeld, Arno (27 April 2021). "Israel is committing 'crime of apartheid,' Human Rights Watch says". The Forward. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
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↑Kingsley, Patrick (23 March 2022). "U.N. Investigator Accuses Israel of Apartheid, Citing Permanence of Occupation". The New York Times.
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↑Kattan, Victor (20 March 2024). "The Implications of An ICJ Finding that Israel is Committing the Crime Against Humanity of Apartheid". Just Security.
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↑Jeßberger, Florian; Mehta, Kalika (19 September 2024). "The Inadvertent Protagonist". Verfassungsblog. doi:10.59704/27788635acf1f7b5– via verfassungsblog.de.
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