領海:国家の領海は、沿岸国の基線[ k ]から最大22キロメートルまで広がる沿岸水域の帯です。これが他国の領海と重なる場合、関係国が別途合意しない限り、国境は両国の基線間の中間線とみなされます。国家はより小さな領海を主張することもできます。領海は国家の主権領域とみなされます。ただし、外国船舶(軍用および民間)は領海内を無害通航または海峡通過通航することが認められています。この主権は、領海上空域および海底にも及びます。国連海洋法条約(UNCLOS)の結果として、国家は領海に対して陸地と同様の程度の管理権を行使します。したがって、無害通航または通過通航を妨げない限り、沿岸警備隊や海軍のパトロールを利用して国境管理措置を実施することができます。
排他的経済水域:排他的経済水域は基線[ k ]から最大370キロメートル(230マイル)まで広がっています。沿岸国は、漁業、鉱業、石油探査、およびそれらの資源の汚染を含む、排他的経済水域内のすべての経済資源を管理します。[ 44 ]ただし、領海を超えた排他的経済水域の部分において、国連条約の規定に従って沿岸国が採択した法律および規制に準拠した、海面上、海面下、または海面上の通行または滞留を禁止することはできません。したがって、国家が排他的経済水域に対して持つ唯一の権限は、その中に含まれる資源の採掘または略奪を規制する能力であり、この目的のために実施される国境管理措置は、無許可の商業活動の抑制に重点を置いています。
航空および海上国境管理政策の一環として、ほとんどの国では、自国の管轄区域内の港湾と空港間で貨物や旅客を輸送する外国の航空会社や船舶の能力を制限または規制しており、これはカボタージュとして知られています。領海と内水を有するほとんどの国では、国内海運業界を外国との競争から保護し、国家安全保障のために国内所有の海運インフラを維持し、混雑した領海での安全を確保するために、海上カボタージュに対する制限が存在します。[ 51 ]例えば、アメリカでは、ジョーンズ法がカボタージュに対して非常に厳しい制限を規定しています。[ m ]同様に、中国では、運輸省の事前承認なしに、外国籍の船舶が国内輸送または国内積み替えを行うことを許可していません。[ 52 ]香港とマカオは本土とは異なる独自の国内カボタージュ制度を維持していますが、これらの地域と本土間の海上カボタージュは国内輸送とみなされ、したがって外国船舶には立ち入り禁止となっています。[ 52 ]同様に、台湾海峡を横断する海上航行には中華人民共和国と中華民国の両方からの特別な許可が必要であり[ n ]、通常は外国船舶の航行が禁止されている。[ 52 ]インドでは、沿岸貿易に従事する外国船舶[ o ]には免許が必要であり、これは通常、現地の船舶が利用できない場合にのみ発行される。[ 52 ]同様に、ブラジルで沿岸貿易に従事する外国船舶には、予定されている輸送に利用できるブラジル船籍の船舶がない場合にのみ免許が発行される可能性がある。[ 52 ]
海上カボタージュと同様に、ほとんどの管轄区域では旅客航空のカボタージュが厳しく制限されているが、航空貨物に関する規則は通常より緩やかである。旅客カボタージュは、ほとんどのオープンスカイ協定の下では通常認められていない。欧州連合の航空カボタージュ政策は、加盟国の一つで認可を受けた航空会社が、ほとんど制限なくEU加盟国でカボタージュを行うことが認められている点で、他に類を見ないほど自由である。[ 53 ]チリは、1979年に制定された世界で最も自由な航空カボタージュ規則を有しており、外国航空会社がチリの航空会社に対し、当該外国航空会社の所在国で相互主義的な扱いを受けることを条件として、国内線を運航することを認めている。各国は、外国航空会社がオフショアハブを経由して国内の2つの目的地間で旅客を輸送する能力に特別な規定を適用している。[ p ]
アジアの多くの地域では、国内国境管理が行われています。たとえば、インドや中国の少数民族地域を訪れる旅行者は、入域するために特別な許可が必要な場合がよくあります。[ z ]インドと中国本土の非自治地域内での国内航空および鉄道旅行でも、一般的に、国内国境検問所の形式として、政府職員による旅行書類の確認が必要です。インド国内でのこのような旅行では、インド国民は投票者ID、国民身分証明書、パスポート、またはその他のインド国籍の証明を使用できますが、ネパール国民は同様のネパール国籍の証明を提示できます。中国本土内でのこのような旅行では、中国国民は国民身分証明書を使用する必要があります。
ヨーロッパの例としては、スバールバル諸島への往来に対する国境管理の実施が挙げられる。スバールバル諸島は、スバールバル条約およびシェンゲン圏(ノルウェー本土を含む)の下で自由な移住政策を維持している。ヨーロッパにおける効果的な国内国境管理の他の例としては、 CIS加盟国の一部にある閉鎖都市、入域に特別な許可が必要なトルクメニスタンの地域、タジキスタンのゴルノ・バダフシャン自治地域への旅行制限、そして(北キプロスと南キプロスが別国とみなされるかどうかによるが)キプロス国境などがある。同様に、イラクのクルディスタン地域は、国内の他の地域とは異なる、より自由なビザおよび関税制度を維持しており、イスラエル人のビザなし入国さえ認めているが、国内の他の地域ではイスラエル人の入国は禁止されている。デンマークもまた、複雑な地方国家制度を維持しており、デンマーク本土とは異なり、これらの地方国家は欧州連合の枠外にあり、独自の関税政策を維持している。[ af ]ロシアの多数の閉鎖都市に加えて、[ 203 ]ロシア連邦の19の行政区[ ag ]の一部は、特別な許可なしには外国人の立ち入りが禁止されており、結果として国内国境管理の対象となっている。[ 204 ]
国境管理政策では、通常、旅行者は有効な旅行書類を提示して、身元、国籍、永住権、および特定の管轄区域への入国資格を確認することが求められます。最も一般的な旅行書類はパスポートで、これは国家当局または特定の地方自治体[ am ]が発行する冊子型の身分証明書であり、個人の個人情報に加え、他の管轄区域の当局がスタンプ、ビザ、またはその他の許可証を貼付して、所持者がその領土に入国、居住、または旅行することを許可するスペースがあります。一部の管轄区域では、個人が身分証明書を使用して国境管理を通過することが認められており、身分証明書には通常、同様の個人情報が記載されています。
多くの国では、個人が外国のビザで国境審査を通過することを認めています。[ an ]特に、フィリピンでは、インドと中国の国民が複数の外国のビザのいずれかを使用して国境審査を通過することを認めています。[ ao ]韓国は、乗り継ぎ客による観光を促進するため、本来韓国のビザが必要な乗り継ぎ客が、オーストラリア、カナダ、アメリカ、またはシェンゲンビザを使用して最大30日間入国することを許可しています。特異なことに、イギリス領バミューダは独自のビザの発行を停止し、現在では、直行便が運航している3か国(カナダ、アメリカ、イギリス)のいずれかでビザなしで入国審査を通過するか、またはこれらの国のいずれかのビザを所持していることを旅行者に要求しています。
APECビジネストラベルカード(ABTC):APECビジネストラベルカード( ABTC)は、APEC加盟国(カナダとアメリカを除く)からのビジネス旅行者向けの迅速な国境管理プログラムです。ビザ免除と迅速な国境管理施設へのアクセスを提供します。ABTC保持者は、カナダの空港で迅速な国境管理を受ける資格がありますが、ビザ免除の対象にはなりません。ABTCは通常、APEC加盟国の国民にのみ発行されますが、香港は中国国民ではない永住者(主に英国、インド、パキスタン国民)に発行しています。中国では、「一国二制度」と「一中国」政策により、ABTCの使用が制限されています。香港、マカオ、中華民国[ n ]の中国国民は、本土に入国するために特別な国内旅行書類を使用する必要があります。中華民国が管理する地域に入国する他の地域の中国国民によるABTCの使用にも同様の制限が適用されます(参照:国内国境管理)。
香港とマカオ:自動旅客入国審査システム(中国語:自助出入境檢查閘機、通称eチャンネル)は、香港とマカオの空港、および中国本土と特別行政区間の陸路国境に設置されている自動国境管理施設です。該当地域の居住者と、一部の外国人が利用できます。[ ay ]香港では、eチャンネルは登録なしで出国する非居住者、および中国本土からの中国国民を含む「頻繁な旅行者」として登録されている非居住者も、到着時と出発時の両方で利用できます。最後に、香港とマカオのeチャンネルシステムは、フェリーターミナルの自動キオスクで登録した後、互いの永住者IDカードを認識します。
シンガポール:強化型入国審査自動システム(eIACS)は、シンガポール国民、永住者、長期滞在許可証を持つ外国人居住者、APECビジネストラベルカード保持者、その他の登録旅行者向けに、すべてのチェックポイントで利用可能です。到着時に指紋を登録した外国人旅行者は、出国審査にeIACSレーンを利用できます。さらに、マレーシアとの陸路国境検問所では、対象となるバイク運転者向けに、バイク運転者生体認証システム(BIKES)が利用可能です。一方、有人カウンターで入国時に指紋を登録したすべての旅行者は、eIACSを使用してシンガポールから空路で出国できます。また、特定の国[ az ]の国民は、所定の条件を満たせば、入国時にeIACSシステムを使用するための登録が可能です。
韓国:韓国はスマートエントリーサービスと呼ばれるプログラムを維持しており、7歳以上の韓国人および17歳以上の登録外国人[ ba ]が登録できます。 [ 334 ]さらに、17歳以上の訪問者は、到着時に生体認証を提供していれば、国際空港の出国時にスマートエントリーサービスを利用できます。
台湾:中華民国が管理する地域には、自動入国システムであるeGateが存在し、[ n ]中華民国国民、特定の居住者、および頻繁に訪れる訪問者に対して迅速な国境管理を提供しています。利用者はゲートで旅行書類をスキャンし、顔認証で通過します。 [ 335 ] 2019年現在、特に台北桃園国際空港第1ターミナルでは、パスポートのスキャンと指紋を使用して、e-Gateシステムを使用して出国することが許可された外国人未登録旅行者の例がありますが、第2ターミナルでは許可されていません。
Emblem of the Department of Homeland Security, the umbrella agency responsible for border control in the United States
Controversies
Certain border control policies of various countries have been the subject of controversy and public debate. Public opinion on border control and closing borders varies by country.[349]
Australia:
Offshore detention centres: Beginning in 2001, Australia implemented border control policies featuring the detention of asylum seekers and economic migrants who arrived unlawfully by boat in nearby islands in the Pacific. These policies are controversial, and in 2017, the Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea declared the detention centre at the Manus Island unconstitutional.[350][351] The adherence of these policies to international human rights law is a matter of controversy.
Travel restrictions on Australian citizens during the COVID-19 pandemic: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia adopted a policy of denying entry to its own citizens arriving from jurisdictions perceived to pose a high risk of COVID-19 transmission.[352] Additionally, Australia adopted a broad policy of restricting entry to the country for all individuals located overseas, including Australian citizens, resulting in a large number of Australian citizens stranded abroad.[353] Australia's policies concerning its own citizens undermined the principle in international law that a state must permit entry to its own citizens, as enshrined in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. At the same time, the Australian government prohibited most Australian citizens from leaving the country, even if they ordinarily reside overseas.[354]
Bhutan: Starting primarily in the 1990s, the Bhutanese government implemented strict restrictions on the country's ethnically Nepali Lhotshampa population and implemented internal border control policies to restrict immigration or return of ethnic Nepalis, creating a refugee crisis. This policy shift effectively ended previously liberal immigration policies concerning Nepalis and counts among the most racialised border control policies in Asia.
China: China does not currently recognize North Korean defectors as refugees and subjects them to immediate deportation if caught. The China-DPRK border is fortified, and both sides aim to deter refugees from crossing. Human rights organisations have criticised this aspect of Chinese border control policy.[355][356]
Cyprus: As a result of Northern Cyprus's sovereignty dispute with Southern Cyprus, the South (a member of the European Union) has imposed restrictions on the North's airports, and pressure from the European Union has resulted in all countries other than Turkey recognising the South's ability to impose a border shutdown on the North, thus negating the right to self determination of the predominantly Turkish Northern Cypriot population and subjecting their airports to border controls imposed by the predominantly Greek South.[357] As a result, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic support and is unable to develop a functioning economy.[358]
Israel: Border control, both on entry and on exit, at Israeli airports rates passengers' potential threat to security using factors including nationality, ethnicity, and race.[359][360] Instances of discrimination against Arabs, people perceived to be Muslim, and Russian Jews among others have been reported in the media.[361][362] Security at Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion Airport relies on several fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalised as "the inescapable fact that terrorist attacks are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology."[363] As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor", Israeli security officers interrogate travellers, profiling those who appear to be Arab based on name or physical appearance.[364] Even as Israeli authorities argue that racist, ethnic, and religious profiling are effective security measures, according to Boaz Ganor, Israel has not undertaken any known empirical studies on the efficacy of the technique of racial profiling.[365]
Policies targeting Muslims: Since the implementation of added security measures in the aftermath of the 2001 World Trade Centre attacks, reports of discrimination against people perceived to be Muslim by American border security officers have been prevalent in the media.[366] The travel restrictions implemented during the Trump presidency primarily against Muslim majority countries have provoked controversy over whether such measures are a legitimate Border security measure or unethically discriminatory.
Separation of families seeking asylum: In April 2018, as part of its "zero tolerance" policy, the American government ordered the separation of the children of refugees and asylum seekers from their parents. As a consequence of popular outrage,[bf] and criticism from the medical[bg] and religious[bh] communities, the policy was put on hold by an executive order signed by Trump on June 20, 2018. Under the policy, federal authorities separated children from their parents, relatives, or other adults who accompanied them in crossing the border, whether apprehended during an illegal crossing or, in numerous reported cases, legally presenting themselves for asylum.[377] The policy involved prosecuting all adults detained at the Mexican border, imprisoning parents, and handing minors to the American Department of Health and Human Services (Spanish: Departamento de Salud y Servicios Sociales de los Estados Unidos).[378] The federal government reported that the policy resulted in the separation of over 2300 children from their parents.[379][380] The Trump administration blamed Congress for the atrocity and labelled the change in policy as "the Democrats' law", even though Congress had been overwhelmingly dominated by Republicans since 2016. Regardless, members of both parties criticised the policy, and detractors of the Trump administration emphasise that there does not seem to be any written law requiring the government to implement such a policy.[381][382]Attorney GeneralJeff Sessions, in defending the policy, quoted a passage from the Bible, even though religious doctrine carries absolutely no weight in American law.[382] Other officials praised the policy as a deterrent to unlawful immigration.[383][384] The costs of separating migrant children from their parents and keeping them in "tent cities" are higher than keeping them with their parents in detention centres.[385] To handle the large amount of immigration charges brought by the Trump administration, federal prosecutors had to divert resources from other crime cases.[386] It costs $775 per person per night to house the children when they are separated but $256 per person per night when they are held in permanent HHS facilities and $298 per person per night to keep the children with their parents in immigration detention centres.[385] The head of the Justice Department's major crimes unit in San Diego diverted staff from drug smuggling cases.[386] Drug smuggling cases were also increasingly pursued in state courts rather than federal courts, as federal prosecutors were increasingly preoccupied with pursuing charges against illegal border crossings.[386] The Kaiser Family Foundation said that costs associated with the policy may also divert resources from programmes within the Department of Health and Human Services.[387] In July 2018, it was reported that HHS had diverted at least $40 million from its health programs to care for and reunify migrant children, and that the HHS was preparing to shift more than $200 million from other HHS accounts.[388]
Effects
Besides hundreds of billions in direct costs to the United States alone,[389] is estimated that the indirect economic cost of border controls cost many trillions of dollars and the size of the global economy could double if migration restrictions were lifted.[390]
Border controls are also associated with more than 63,000 border deaths since 2000,[391][392][393] although scholars believe that border deaths are significantly underestimated.[394][395][396] Although states often blame unauthorized border crossers for taking excessive risks,[397][398] the resort to dangerous methods of border crossing occurs when safe and legal avenues are closed to prospective migrants.[393][397][399] In some cases, enforcement tactics have rerouted migrants to more dangerous routes with the stated goal to deter border crossers with the increased danger.[395][394][393]
Empirical studies in several countries have found that efforts to increase border controls also increase the number of people residing irregularly. This is because the majority of people residing irregularly in many Global North countries arrived legally and overstayed their visa. Efforts to make border crossing more difficult may promote permanent settlement in place of earlier patterns of temporary migration.[400]
↑For example, Ann Dummett, an activist for racial equality, criticised the legislation, saying that "there is no indication at all in our nationality law of ethnic origin being a criterion. But the purpose of the law since 1981, and the manner in which it is implemented, make sure that ethnic origin is in fact and in practice a deciding factor."[17] Ms Dummett also said that "the 1981 Nationality Act in effect gave full British citizenship to a group of whom at least 96% are white people, and the other, less favourable forms of British nationality to groups who are at least 98% non-white"[18]
↑In March 1996, there was a submission to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of United Nations. The committee criticised the arrangements of the BN(O) nationality under "Principal subjects of concern": "The Government's statement that South Asian residents of Hong Kong are granted some form of British nationality, whether that of a British National Overseas (BNO) or a British Overseas Citizen (BOC), so that no resident of Hong Kong would be left stateless following the transfer of sovereignty is noted with interest. It is, however, a matter of concern that such status does not grant the bearer the right of abode in the United Kingdom and contrasts with the full citizenship status conferred upon a predominantly white population living in another dependent territory. It is noted that most of the persons holding BNO or BOC status are Asians and that judgements on applications for citizenship appear to vary according to the country of origin, which leads to the assumption that this practice reveals elements of racial discrimination."[19]
↑For example, the legislative councilor Henrietta Ip criticised the idea of British National (Overseas) and again urged the UK Parliament, to grant full British citizenship to Hong Kong's British nationals in the council meeting held on 5 July 1989, saying that "we were born and live under British rule on British land.... It is therefore... our right to ask that you should give us back a place of abode so that we can continue to live under British rule on British land if we so wish.... I represent most of all those who live here to firmly request and demand you to grant us the right to full British citizenship so that we can, if we so wish, live in the United Kingdom, our Motherland... I say to you that the right of abode in the United Kingdom is the best and the only definitive guarantee.... With your failure to give us such a guarantee, reluctant as I may, I must advise the people of Hong Kong, and urgently now, each to seek for themselves a home of last resort even if they have to leave to do so. I do so because, as a legislator, my duty is with the people first and the stability and prosperity of Hong Kong second, although the two are so interdependent...."
↑The legislation is sometimes compared with Macau, a former colony of Portugal, where many residents of Chinese descent were granted right of abode in Portugal when Macau was still under colonial rule. They were not deprived of their right of abode after the transfer of sovereignty over Macau in 1999; their Portuguese passports and citizenship are valid and inheritable, and many of them still choose to stay in Macau.
↑The Economist also wrote critically in an article published on 3 July 1997 that "the failure to offer citizenship to most of Hong Kong's residents was shameful", and "it was the height of cynicism to hand 6m people over to a regime of proven brutality without allowing them any means to move elsewhere." The article commented that the real reason that the new Labour government still refused to give full British citizenship to other British Dependent Territories Citizens in around 1997 – because the United Kingdom was waiting until Hong Kong had been disposed of – "would be seen as highly cynical", as Baroness Symons, a Foreign Office minister, has conceded.[21]
↑Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as "self-governing" or "independent" and theoretically had some sovereign powers. Independent Bantustans (Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei; also known as the TBVC states) were intended to be fully sovereign. In reality, they had no economic infrastructure worth mentioning and, with few exceptions, were composed of swaths of disconnected territory. This meant all the Bantustans were little more than puppet states controlled by South Africa. Throughout the existence of the independent Bantustans, South Africa remained the only country to recognise their independence. Nevertheless, internal organisations of many countries, as well as the South African government, lobbied for their recognition. For example, upon the foundation of Transkei, the Swiss-South African Association encouraged the Swiss government to recognise the new state. In 1976, leading up to a United States House of Representatives resolution urging the President not to recognise Transkei, the South African government intensely lobbied lawmakers to oppose the bill. While the bill fell short of the two-thirds vote it needed, a simple majority of lawmakers nevertheless supported the resolution.[29] Each TBVC state extended recognition to the other independent Bantustans while South Africa showed its commitment to the notion of TBVC sovereignty by building embassies in the TBVC capitals.
↑In South Africa, pass laws were designed to segregate the population, manage urbanisation, and allocate migrant labour. Also known as the natives law, pass laws severely limited the movements of not only blacks, but other people as well (e.g., Asians) by requiring them to carry passbooks when outside their homelands or designated areas. Before the 1950s, this legislation largely applied to African men, and attempts to apply it to women in the 1910s and 1950s were met with significant protests. Pass laws would be one of the dominant features of the country's apartheid system, until it was effectively ended in 1986. The first internal passports in South Africa were introduced on 27 June 1797 by the Earl Macartney in an attempt to prevent natives from entering the Cape Colony.[30] In 1896 the South African Republic brought in two pass laws which required Africans to carry a metal badge and only those employed by a master were permitted to remain on the Rand. Those entering a "labour district" needed a special pass which entitled them to remain for three days.[31] The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 deemed urban areas in South Africa as "white" and required all black African men in cities and towns to carry around permits called "passes" at all times. Anyone found without a pass would be arrested immediately and sent to a rural area. It was replaced in 1945 by the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, which imposed "influx control" on black men, and also set up guidelines for removing people deemed to be living idle lives from urban areas. This act outlined requirements for African peoples' "qualification" to reside legally in white metropolitan areas.[32]
↑Thousands of Gujaratis returned to Uganda after Yoweri Museveni, the subsequent head of state of Uganda, criticised Idi Amin's policies and invited them to return.[28] According to Museveni, "Gujaratis have played a lead role in Uganda's social and industrial development. I knew that this community can do wonders for my country and they have been doing it for last many decades." The Gujaratis have resurfaced in Uganda and helped rebuild the economy of East Africa, and are financially well settled.[28][33]
↑The 145 states which are parties to the convention are required to provide travel documents to refugees lawfully residing within their territory as per Article 28 of the convention. Refugee travel documents issued pursuant to Article 28 by certain states cannot be used for travel to the bearer's country of citizenship,[34]
123Normally, the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured is the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognised by the coastal state. This is either the low-water mark closest to the shore, or an unlimited distance from permanently exposed land, provided that some portion of elevations exposed at low tide but covered at high tide (such as mud flats) is within 5.6 km of permanently exposed land. Straight baselines can alternatively be defined connecting fringing islands along a coast, across the mouths of rivers, or, with certain restrictions, across the mouths of bays. In this case, a bay is defined as "a well-marked indentation whose penetration is in such proportion to the width of its mouth as to contain land-locked waters and constitute more than a mere curvature of the coast. An indentation shall not, however, be regarded as a bay unless its area is as large as, or larger than, that of the semi-circle whose diameter is a line drawn across the mouth of that indentation". The baseline across the bay must also be no more than 44 km in length.
↑All "archipelagic waters" within the outermost islands of an archipelagic state such as Indonesia or the Philippines are also considered internal waters. They are treated the same, except that innocent passage through them must be allowed. However, archipelagic states may designate certain sea lanes through these waters.
↑All goods transported by water between American ports must be carried on ships that have been constructed in the United States and that fly the American flag, are owned by American citizens, and are crewed by American citizens and/or permanent residents
↑Defined as: the carriage of goods or passengers from any port or place in India to any other port or place in India or Sri Lanka[52]
↑For instance, a Boston-Toronto-Seattle itinerary.[54] Such services are currently considered to constitute cabotage and are not permitted.[55] In 2002, American authorities fined Asiana Airlines for selling tickets from the mainland US to Guam and Saipan via Seoul.[56]
↑Hungary completed the construction of 175 kilometres of fencing between with Serbia in September 2015 and on the border with Croatia in October 2015 to stop unauthorised border crossings.[114] In April 2016, Hungarian government announced construction of reinforcements of the barrier, which it described as "temporary".[115] In July 2016, nearly 1,300 migrants were "stuck" on the Serbian side of the border.[116] In August 2016, Orbán announced that Hungary would build another larger barrier on its southern border.[117] On 28 April 2017, the Hungarian government announced it had completed a second fence, 155 kilometres long, with Serbia.[118][119] On 24 September 2015, Hungary began building fence on its border with Slovenia, in the area around Tornyiszentmiklós–Pince border crossing.[120] The razor wire obstacle was removed two days later.[121]
↑According to the July 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement civil shipping was supposed to be permissible in the Han River estuary and allow Seoul to be connected to the Yellow Sea (West Sea) via the Han River.[135] However, both Koreas and the UNC failed to make this happen. The South Korean government ordered the construction of the Ara Canal to finally connect Seoul to the Yellow Sea, which was completed in 2012. Seoul was effectively landlocked from the ocean until 2012. The biggest limitation of the Ara Canal is that it is too narrow to accommodate vessels other than small tourist and recreational boats, so Seoul still cannot receive large commercial or passenger ships at its port.
↑The peacekeeping force currently has its headquarters at the abandoned Nicosia International Airport, where the majority of peacekeepers are based and where talks between the two governments are held.
↑In the ASEAN region, a large portion of the Singaporean, Malaysian, and Bruneian population holds OCI status. Large OCI communities also exist in North America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as in many African nations (particularly South Africa, Madagascar, and members of the East African Community). OCI status exempts holders from immigration controls generally imposed upon others of the same nationality.
↑It is issued by the United Kingdom to Commonwealth citizens with a grandparent born in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands or Isle of Man who wish to work in the United Kingdom. It is used mainly by Australians, New Zealanders, Canadians, and South Africans of British descent working or studying in the United Kingdom.[148]
↑The Virgin Islands follows the visa policy applicable in the mainland but is a customs-free area meaning that there are customs checks for passengers travelling from the islands to the mainland or Puerto Rico. Guam and the Northern Marianas maintain their own customs and visa waiver policies, meaning that flights between Guam and Honolulu, the only air link to an American state, require immigration checks which are conducted before departure. American Samoa maintains a distinct visa and customs policy, meaning that flights to Honolulu are treated as international arrivals. Access to the United States Minor Outlying Islands is governed by a variety of permits issued by the Office of Insular Affairs or the United States Fish and Wildlife Service depending on the territory
↑While Hawaii is subject to the same visa and customs controls as the mainland and Puerto Rico, controls are imposed on passengers travelling to and from the state for agricultural policy[158])
↑For example, inter-state travel in Australia was restricted in 2020 due to the COVID-19 epidemic, for the first time since the 1918 flu pandemic.
↑ In India, special permits are required to travel across much of the country's north-east, and requirements may vary within a given state. Special provisions are occasionally made for individuals from Bhutan or Nepal proceeding to or from their home country. Additionally, individuals arriving in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands from elsewhere in India receive passport stamps (see gallery at the end of the section), even though only foreigners are typically subject to permit requirements. Permits issued for minority regions in India include:
The Tibet Travel Permits (Chinese:外国人入藏函foreigners' entrance letter) required for all foreigners (as well as Taiwanese nationals from the Republic of China) to enter the region
The Alien Travel Permit is required for holders of the Tibet Travel Permit to travel outside major urban and tourist areas of the region
Additionally, special permits are issued to nationals of India and Bhutan for religious pilgrimages to Hindu and Buddhist holy sites in the Tibet Autonomous Region.[190]
↑The following documents are currently issued for this purpose:
For mainlanders emigrating to either of the two Special Administrative Regions, authorities in the mainland issue the One Way Travel Permit (Chinese:单程证; pinyin:Dānchéngzhèng). As the policy is designed to curtail emigration from the mainland rather than immigration to either SAR, issuance is the responsibility of mainland authorities.
Since September 2018, authorities in the mainland have issued the Residence Permit for Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan Residents (Chinese:港澳台居民居住证; pinyin:Gǎng-Aò-Tái Jūmín Jūzhùzhèng) authorising Chinese citizens from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwanese nationals to reside in the mainland. The permit is designed to resemble the national identity card issued to individuals with household registration on the mainland, and it enables holders to access public and private-sector services that require a national identity card number.
↑Nationals of the following countries are ineligible for the SEZ visa:[193]
↑These are Greenland and the Faroe Islands. These areas do not maintain strict immigration controls with the Schengen Area, but border controls are sporadically enforced for customs purposes.
The Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, 85% of territory. Transit to the borders with Georgia and South Ossetia is possible along the main roads. Tsey Gorge has been open for foreigners since 2012.
↑This does not apply to accompanying spouses and minor children or members of travel groups. In addition, a valid identification document must be presented to the hotel manager or staff.[214]
↑For example, in April 2010, Malta introduced temporary checks due to Pope Benedict XVI's visit.[217] It reimposed checks in 2015 in the weeks surrounding the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. In response to the European migrant crisis, several countries set up internal controls. In 2019, Denmark, worried about the bombings in Sweden, introduced passport controls to Swedish citizens for the first time since the 1950s.[218]
↑Countries collecting fingerprints at checkpoints include America, Argentina,[229] Brunei, Cambodia,[230] China,[231] Ethiopia,[232] Ghana, Guinea,[233] India, Japan,[234][235] Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken),[236] Malaysia upon entry and departure,[237] Paraguay, Saudi Arabia,[238] Singapore, South Korea,[239] Taiwan, Thailand,[240] and Uganda.[241]
↑Border Force officers do not carry out systematic checks of travel documents on passengers travelling to a destination outside the Common Travel Area by air, rail or sea (though from time to time spot checks are carried out – in this case passports are not stamped); instead, airline/rail/ferry companies obtain passengers' travel document information at check-in or on departure and transmit the information electronically to the UK Border Force[258]
↑In 1960, local border traffic on the Yugoslavia — Italy border in Istria registered almost seven million crossings in both directions.[265] In 1977, Yugoslavia had 55 local border traffic agreements with the neighboring countries, including 7 with Italy, 11 with Austria, 8 with Hungary, 10 with Romania, 8 with Bulgaria, and 5 with Greece.[266]
Turkey — certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Turkish visa if holding a valid American visa.
UAE — Visa on arrival for 14 days; for nationals of India only. (Applicable for Indian citizens holding an American Green Card.)[278]
↑Nationals of China from the Mainland travelling as tourists and holding a valid visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, America, or a Schengen Area state may enter and stay without a visa for up to 7 days. Nationals of India holding a valid tourist, business, or resident visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, Singapore, the United Kingdom, America, or a Schengen Area state may enter and stay without a visa for up to 14 days. They may enter from any port of entry.[279]
↑A holder of an EVW authorisation can visit and/or study in the UK for up to 6 months without a visa. An EVW is only valid for one entry, and a new EVW must be obtained each time an eligible person wishes to enter the UK to visit and/or study for up to 6 months without a visa. The EVW is valid for up to 90 days of visits to Ireland once a holder has cleared immigration in the United Kingdom.
↑ To facilitate juxtaposed controls, the United Kingdom and France established or "control zones" at both ends of the Channel Tunnel, per which British authorities exercise authority within the control zone on the French side, and French authorities exercise authority within the control zone on the UK side, under a system of juxtaposed controls. Violations in the control zone are treated as if they occurred within the adjoining state's territory, and extradition is not required to remove a violator to the operating state for prosecution. Officers of the adjoining state may carry firearms within the control zone.[310]
123The following airports are equipped with automated kiosks (except where otherwise stated, all participating airports are located in United States or its territories):[340]
The ‡ indicates there are no Global Entry enrollment centres at these sites. Enrolment centres in Canada are NEXUS enrolment centres staffed by U.S. and Canadian border control officers
↑As a standalone document, the BCC allows Mexican citizens to visit border areas in the U.S. when entering by land or sea directly from Mexico for less than 72 hours.[343] The document also functions as a full B1/B2 visa when presented with a valid Mexican passport.[344]
↑The policy proved extremely unpopular with the public, with approximately 25% of Americans supporting it, less than for any recent major piece of legislation.[367] The detainment of children by the U.S. government has been compared to the Nazi concentration camps by some observers and politicians.[368][369]
↑The policy has been condemned by the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American College of Physicians and the American Psychiatric Association.[370] Together, they represent more than 250,000 doctors in the United States.[371] Irwin Redlener, who co-founded Children's Health Fund, called the policy "dehumanising" and described it as a form of child abuse.[372] Many concerned researchers and clinicians signed an open letter to Homeland Security Secretary Nielsen calling on her to end the migrant child separations, writing, "Decades of psychological and brain research have demonstrated that forced parental separation and placement in incarceration-like facilities can have profound immediate, long-term, and irreparable harm on infant and child development."[373]
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12Soto, Gabriella (September 2024). "The Weight of Numbers: Counting Border Crossing Deaths and Policy Intent". Journal on Migration and Human Security. 12 (3): 290–309. doi:10.1177/23315024241268600.
12Obinna, Denise N. (June 2025). "Death in the Borderlands: Necropolitics and Migration-Related Mortality at the US-Mexico Border". Politics & Policy. 53 (3) e70046. doi:10.1111/polp.70046.
↑Kristof Gombeer, Orçun Ulusoy and Marie-Laure Basilien-Gainche (2019). "Understanding the Causes of Border Deaths". Border Deaths: Causes, Dynamics and Consequences of Migration-related Mortality. Amsterdam University Press. pp.136–137. doi:10.5117/9789463722322. ISBN978-94-6372-232-2.
12Steinhilper, Elias; Gruijters, Rob J (June 2018). "A Contested Crisis: Policy Narratives and Empirical Evidence on Border Deaths in the Mediterranean". Sociology. 52 (3): 515–533. doi:10.1177/0038038518759248.
↑Paolo Cuttitta (2019). "Preface". Border Deaths: Causes, Dynamics and Consequences of Migration-related Mortality. Amsterdam University Press. doi:10.5117/9789463722322. ISBN978-94-6372-232-2. Even when border deaths appear (or are presented) as 'natural' or 'accidental', they are in fact the result of the structural violence of migration policies... However, states prefer to put the blame elsewhere, be it on criminal groups or on natural conditions, or even on the hazard-taking migrants – on what Horwood (2018a) calls their aspirations and risk-taking behaviour.
↑Laakkonen, Ville (1 November 2022). "Deaths, disappearances, borders: Migrant disappearability as a technology of deterrence". Political Geography. 99 102767. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2022.102767. ISSN0962-6298.
↑Spijkerboer, Thomas (2018). "The Global Mobility Infrastructure: Reconceptualising the Externalisation of Migration Control". European Journal of Migration and Law. 20 (4): 452–469. doi:10.1163/15718166-12340038. ISSN1388-364X. S2CID150019997.
Further reading
Idrees Kahloon, "Border Control: The economics of immigration vs. the politics of immigration", The New Yorker, 12 June 2023, pp.65–69. "The limits of immigration are not set by economics but by political psychology – by backlash unconcerned with net benefits." (p.65.)
Susan Harbage Page & Inéz Valdez (17 April 2011). "Residues of Border Control", Southern Spaces
James, Paul (2014). "Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens". Citizenship Studies. 18 (2): 208–23. doi:10.1080/13621025.2014.886440. S2CID144816686.
Philippe Legrain (2007). Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them, Little Brown, ISBN0-316-73248-6
Aristide Zolberg (2006). A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America, Harvard University Press, ISBN0-674-02218-1
Philippe Legrain (2007). Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them, Little Brown, ISBN0-316-73248-6
Ruben Rumbaut & Walter Ewing (Spring 2007). "The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men", The Immigration Policy Center.
Bryan Balin (2008). State Immigration Legislation and Immigrant Flows: An Analysis The Johns Hopkins University
Douglas S. Massey (September 2005). "Beyond the Border Buildup: Towards a New Approach to Mexico-U.S. Migration", Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation
IPC Special Report (November 2005). "Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide", Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation
American Immigration Council (April 2014). "Immigrant Women in the United States: A Demographic Portrait"
Jill Esbenshade (Summer 2007). "Division and Dislocation: Regulating Immigration through Local Housing Ordinances". American Immigration Council
Jeffrey S. Passel & Roberto Suro (September 2005). "Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration"Archived 31 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Pew Hispanic Center
Jeffrey S. Passel (March 2005). "Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population"Archived 31 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Pew Hispanic Center
Jeffrey S. Passel (March 2007). "Growing Share of Immigrants Choosing Naturalization"Archived 28 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Pew Hispanic Center