オーストラリア連邦 | |
|---|---|
| 国歌: 「アドバンス・オーストラリア・フェア」[N 1] | |
オーストラリア連邦
| |
| 資本 | キャンベラ 35°18′29″S 149°07′28″E / 35.30806°S 149.12444°E / -35.30806; 149.12444 |
| 最大の都市 | シドニー(大都市) メルボルン(都市部)[N 2] |
| 公用語と国語 | 英語(事実上) なし (法律上) |
| 宗教 (2021年)[4] | |
| 異名 |
|
| 政府 | 連邦議会制立憲君主制 |
• モナーク | シャルル3世 |
• 総督 | サム・モスティン |
• 首相 | アンソニー・アルバネーゼ |
| 立法府 | 議会 |
• 上院 | 上院 |
• 下院 | 衆議院 |
| 独立 イギリスから | |
| 1901年1月1日 | |
• バルフォア宣言 | 1926年11月15日 |
| 1942年10月9日 | |
• オーストラリア法 | 1986年3月3日 |
| エリア | |
• 合計 | 7,688,287 [8] [9] [10] km 2 (2,968,464 平方マイル) ( 6 番目) |
• 水 (%) | 1.79 (2015) [10] |
| 人口 | |
• 2024年の推定 | |
• 2021年国勢調査 | |
• 密度 | 3.6/km 2 (9.3/平方マイル) ( 244位) |
| GDP (購買力平価) | 2024年推定 |
• 合計 | |
• 一人当たり | |
| GDP (名目) | 2024年推定 |
• 合計 | |
• 一人当たり | |
| ジーニ (2020) | 中程度の不平等 |
| HDI (2022) | |
| 通貨 | オーストラリアドル($) ( AUD ) |
| タイムゾーン | UTC +8; +9.5; +10 ( AWST、ACST、AEST [N 4] ) |
• 夏 ( DST ) | UTC +10.5; +11 ( ACDT, AEDT [N 4] ) |
| クイーンズランド州、西オーストラリア州、ノーザンテリトリーでは夏時間は実施されない | |
| 日付形式 | 年/月/日[16] |
| ドライブを続ける | 左 |
| 呼び出しコード | +61 |
| ISO 3166 コード | オーストラリア |
| インターネットTLD | .au |
オーストラリアは、正式にはオーストラリア連邦[17]であり、オーストラリア大陸の本土、タスマニア島、および多数の小さな島々からなる国です。[18] 6つの州と10の準州から構成されるオーストラリアは、総面積が7,688,287 km 2 (2,968,464平方マイル)で、世界で6番目に大きい国であり、オセアニアでは面積が最大の国です。世界で最も古く、[19]最も平坦で、[20]最も乾燥した人が居住する大陸であり、[21] [22]最も肥沃でない土壌もあります。[23] [24]オーストラリアは多様性に富んだ国であり、その大きさにより、砂漠や熱帯雨林など、多種多様な景観と気候が生まれています。
オーストラリアの先住民アボリジニの祖先は、最終氷河期の5万~6万5千年前に東南アジアから到着し始めた。[25] [26] [27]彼らは大陸に定住し、ヨーロッパ人が入植する頃には約250の異なる言語グループを形成し、世界で最も長く続いている芸術的・宗教的伝統のいくつかを維持した。 [28]オーストラリアの記録された歴史は、 17世紀にオランダ人が海岸線のほとんどを探検したことから始まった。イギリスの植民地化は、1788年にニューサウスウェールズの流刑地が設立されたことで始まった。19世紀半ばまでに、大陸の大部分はヨーロッパ人入植者によって探検され、さらに5つの自治イギリス植民地が設立され、 1890年までにそれぞれ責任ある政府を獲得した。植民地は1901年に連邦制となり、オーストラリア連邦を形成した。[29]これは、 1942年のウェストミンスター法による養子縁組法に代表される、イギリスからの自治権拡大のプロセスの継続であり、1986年のオーストラリア法で最高潮に達した。 [29]
オーストラリアは連邦 制議会制民主主義の立憲君主制国家である。人口は2,700万人を超え、都市化が進んでおり、東海岸に集中している。[11] [30] キャンベラが首都であり、最も人口の多い都市はシドニーとメルボルンで、どちらも人口は500万人を超えている。[31] オーストラリアの文化は多様で、外国生まれの人口が世界でも最も多い国の一つである。 [ 32] [33]オーストラリアは高度に発達した市場経済を誇り、一人当たりの所得は世界でも最も高い国の一つである。[34] [35] [36]豊富な天然資源とよく発達した国際貿易関係は、同国の経済にとって極めて重要である。生活の質、健康、教育、経済的自由、公民権、政治的権利の点で高い評価を得ている。 [37]
オーストラリアは中堅国であり、世界で13番目に高い軍事費を誇っています。[38] [39]オーストラリアは、国連、G20 、 OECD 、世界貿易機関、アジア太平洋経済協力、太平洋諸島フォーラム、太平洋共同体、英連邦、防衛安全保障組織のANZUS、AUKUS、ファイブアイズなどの国際グループのメンバーです。また、NATO以外の主要な米国同盟国でもあります。[40]
語源
オーストラリア(オーストラリア英語では[ ə ˈ s t r eɪ l i ə /と発音される[41] )という名前は、ラテン語のTerra Australis(「南の国」)に由来しており、これは古代から南半球にある仮想の大陸に使われてきた名前である。[42] 16世紀の地図製作者数名は地図に「オーストラリア」という言葉を使ったが、現代のオーストラリアを指すものではなかった。[43] 17世紀にヨーロッパ人がオーストラリアを訪れ地図を作り始めると、新しい領土にTerra Australisという名前が付けられた。[N 5]
19世紀初頭まで、オーストラリアはニューホランドとしてよく知られていた。この名前は、1644年にオランダの探検家アベル・タスマンによって初めて使われ( Nieuw-Holland)、その後英語化された。テラ・アウストラリスは、科学的なテキストなどで時折使われていた。[N 6]オーストラリアという名前は、探検家マシュー・フリンダースによって普及した。彼は、この名前が「より耳に心地よく、地球上の他の多くの地域の名前と同化している」と述べた。[49]オーストラリアが公式に使用されたと思われる最初の時は、1817年4月、ラクラン・マッコーリー総督がバサースト卿からフリンダースのオーストラリアの海図を受け取ったことを認めた時であった。[50] 1817年12月、マッコーリーは植民地省に、正式に採用するよう勧告した。[51] 1824年、海軍本部は、大陸を公式にその名前で呼ぶことに同意した。[52]新しい名前が初めて公式に出版されたのは、1830年に水路局が発行した『オーストラリアディレクトリ』でした。[53]
オーストラリアの俗称には「オズ」、「ストラヤ」、「ダウンアンダー」などがある。[54]その他の呼び名には「グレートサザンランド」、「ラッキーカントリー」、「サンバーンカントリー」、「ワイドブラウンランド」などがある。最後の2つはどちらもドロシア・マッケラーの1908年の詩「マイカントリー」に由来している。[55]
歴史
先住民の先史時代

オーストラリア先住民は、大きく分けて 2 つのグループに分けられます。
- アボリジニ・オーストラリア人、オーストラリア本土とタスマニアを含む多くの島々に住む先住民族
- トレス海峡諸島民は、トレス海峡諸島の独特のメラネシア人である。
オーストラリア大陸への人類の居住は、現在の東南アジアから陸路や短距離の海路で人々が移住したことにより、5万~6万5千年前に始まったと推定されている。 [25] [56] [57] [26]現代のアボリジニ・オーストラリア人の祖先が誕生するまでに、何回の移民の波があったかは不明である。[59] [60]アーネムランドのマジェドベベ岩陰遺跡は、オーストラリアに人類が存在していたことを示す最古の遺跡である可能性がある。[ 61] [27]発見された最古の人類の遺骨は、約4万1千年前のものとされるマンゴ湖の遺骨である。 [62] [63]
オーストラリアの先住民アボリジニ文化は、地球上で最も古くから続いている文化の一つです。[28] [64] [65] [66]ヨーロッパ人との最初の接触当時、オーストラリアの先住民は幅広い社会に属しており、少なくとも250の異なる言語グループにまたがる多様な経済を持っていました。[67] [68]イギリス人入植以前のアボリジニ人口は30万人から300万人と推定されています。[69] [70] [71]アボリジニ文化は土地や環境と深く結びついており、ドリーミングの物語は口承、歌、踊り、絵画を通じて維持されています。 [72]一部のグループは火打ち石農業、[73] [74] 魚の養殖、[75] [76]に従事し、半永久的なシェルターを建設しました。[77] [78]これらの慣行は、「狩猟採集」、「農業」、「自然栽培」、「集約化」など様々に特徴づけられてきた。[79] [80] [81] [82] [83]
トレス海峡諸島民が最初に島に定住したのは約4,000年前です。[84]彼らは本土の先住民とは文化的にも言語的にも異なり、船乗りで、季節ごとの園芸やサンゴ礁や海の資源で生計を立てていました。[85]いくつかの島では農業も発達し、1300年代までに村が出現しました。[86]
18世紀半ばまでにオーストラリア北部では、地元のアボリジニ集団と現在のインドネシアから来ていたマカッサルのトレパンガーとの間で接触、貿易、異文化交流が確立されていました。 [87] [88] [89]
ヨーロッパ人の探検と植民地化
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オランダ人は、オーストラリア本土を目撃し、上陸したことを記録した最初のヨーロッパ人です。[90]オーストラリアの海岸を地図に描き、アボリジニの人々と出会った最初の船と乗組員は、オランダ人の航海士ウィレム・ヤンスゾーンが船長を務めたデュイフケン号でした。[91]彼は1606年初頭にケープヨーク半島の海岸を目撃し、1606年2月26日にケープヨークの現在のウェイパの町近くのペンネファーザー川に上陸しました。 [92]その年の後半、スペインの探検家ルイス・ヴァス・デ・トーレスがトレス海峡諸島を航行しました。[93]オランダ人は17世紀に西部と北部の海岸線全体を測量し、この島を「ニューホランド」と名付けた。入植の試みは行われなかったが、 [92]多数の難破船で人々が取り残されたり、1629年のバタビア号のように反乱や殺人で孤立したりしたため、この大陸に永住した最初のヨーロッパ人となった。[94] 1770年、ジェームズ・クック船長が航海して東海岸の地図を作成し、「ニューサウスウェールズ」と名付け、イギリス領であると主張した。[95]
1783年にアメリカ植民地を失った後、イギリス政府はニューサウスウェールズ州に新たな流刑地を設立するために、アーサー・フィリップ船長率いる第一艦隊という艦隊を派遣した。 1788年1月26日、ポートジャクソンのシドニー湾に収容所が設置され、英国旗が掲揚された。 [96] [97]この日は後にオーストラリアの建国記念日となった。
初期の入植者のほとんどは囚人で、軽犯罪で流刑に処され、 「自由入植者」(自発的な移民)の労働者や召使として配属された。解放されると、囚人は植民地社会に溶け込む傾向があった。囚人の反乱や暴動は戒厳令の下で鎮圧された。[98]戒厳令は、オーストラリアで唯一成功したクーデターである1808年のラム酒反乱の後、2年間続いた。[99]その後20年間、社会・経済改革、立法評議会および最高裁判所の設立により、ニューサウスウェールズ州は流刑地から市民社会へと移行した。[100] [101]
先住民の人口は、ヨーロッパ人の入植後150年間にわたり、主に伝染病により減少した。[102] [103]イギリス植民地当局は、先住民族グループとのいかなる条約も締結しなかった。 [ 103] [104]入植地が拡大するにつれ、何千人もの先住民が辺境紛争で死亡し、他の人々は伝統的な土地を奪われた。[105]
植民地拡大

1803年にヴァン・ディーメンズ・ランド(現在のタスマニア島)に入植地が設立され、 [106] 1813年にはグレゴリー・ブラックスランド、ウィリアム・ローソン、ウィリアム・ウェントワースが シドニー西部のブルーマウンテンを越え、内陸部へのヨーロッパ人の入植が始まった。[107]イギリスの領有権主張は、1827年にエドマンド・ロッカー少佐がキング・ジョージ・サウンド(現在のアルバニー)に入植地を設立したときにオーストラリア大陸全体に拡大された。[108]スワン川植民地(現在のパース)は1829年に設立され、面積ではオーストラリア最大の植民地、西オーストラリア州に発展した。[109]人口増加に応じて、ニューサウスウェールズ州から別の植民地が分割されました。1825年にタスマニア、1836年に南オーストラリア、1841年にニュージーランド、 1851年にビクトリア、1859年にクイーンズランドです。 [110]南オーストラリアは自由植民地として設立され、流刑囚を受け入れることはありませんでした。[111]囚人制度に対する反対が高まり、1850年代までに東部植民地で囚人制度が廃止されました。最初は自由植民地だった西オーストラリアは、1850年から1868年まで流刑者を実習しました。[112]
6つの植民地は1855年から1890年の間にそれぞれ責任ある政府を獲得し、大英帝国の一部でありながら、ほとんどの事柄を自ら管理する選挙民主主義国家となった。[113]ロンドンの植民地省は、特に外交問題に関して、いくつかの事項の管理を維持した。[114]
19世紀半ばには、バークやウィルスなどの探検家がオーストラリア内陸部の地図を作成した。[115] 1850年代初頭に始まった一連のゴールドラッシュにより、中国、北米、ヨーロッパ大陸からの新たな移民が流入し、[116]同時に、山賊行為や内乱も発生した。内乱は1854年にバララットの鉱山労働者が金採掘許可料に反対してユーレカ反乱を起こしたときにピークに達した。 [117] 1860年代には、主にクイーンズランドの入植者によって南洋諸島民が強制または拉致されて年季奉公されるブラックバーディングが増加した。 [118] [119]
1886年以降、オーストラリアの植民地政府は、児童保護と強制同化政策を理由に、多くのアボリジニの子供たちを家族やコミュニティから引き離し始めた。 [120] [121] [122]第二次ボーア戦争(1899年 - 1902年)は、オーストラリア植民地軍の最大の海外展開となった。[123] [124]
連邦から世界大戦まで

1901年1月1日、10年にわたる計画、憲法制定会議、国民投票を経て植民地の連邦化が達成され、新しいオーストラリア憲法に基づく国家としてオーストラリア連邦が設立されました。[125]
1907年の帝国会議の後、オーストラリアと他のいくつかの自治英国入植植民地は、大英帝国内の自治領の地位を与えられた。 [126]オーストラリアは1920年に国際連盟、 [127] 1945年に国際連合の創設メンバーとなった。[ 128] 1931年のウェストミンスター規程は、英国がオーストラリアの同意なしに連邦法を制定する権限を正式に終了させた。オーストラリアは1942年にこれを採用したが、第二次世界大戦中に可決された法律の有効性を確認するために1939年に遡及した。[129] [130] [131]
オーストラリア首都特別地域は、将来の連邦首都キャンベラの所在地として1911年に設立されました。[132]建設中、メルボルンは1901年から1927年まで臨時首都として機能しました。 [133]ノーザンテリトリーは1911年に南オーストラリア州の管理から連邦に移管されました。[134]オーストラリアは1902年にパプア準州(1883年にクイーンズランド州に併合されていた)の植民地支配者となり、1920年にはニューギニア準州(旧ドイツ領ニューギニア)の植民地支配者となりました。 [135] [136] 2つは1949年にパプア・ニューギニア準州として統一され、1975年にオーストラリアから独立しました。[135] [137]

1914年、オーストラリアは連合国に加わって第一次世界大戦に参戦し、西部戦線で行われた多くの主要な戦闘に参加した。[138]従軍した約41万6千人のうち、約6万人が死亡し、さらに15万2千人が負傷した。[139]多くのオーストラリア人は、1915年のガリポリでのオーストラリア・ニュージーランド軍団(ANZAC)の敗北を、新しい国家のアイデンティティを形作った「洗礼」とみなしている。[140] [141] [142]この作戦の始まりは、毎年ANZACデーに記念されており、この日はオーストラリアデーに匹敵する国家にとって最も重要な日となっている。[143] [144]
1939年から1945年まで、オーストラリアは連合国に加わり第二次世界大戦を戦った。オーストラリア軍は太平洋、ヨーロッパ、地中海、中東の 戦域で戦った。[145] [146] 1942年のシンガポールでのイギリスの敗北の衝撃、それに続くダーウィンの爆撃とオーストラリア領土へのその他の日本軍の攻撃により、オーストラリアでは日本軍の侵攻が差し迫っているとの見方が広まり、オーストラリアの主な同盟国および安全保障パートナーはイギリスからアメリカに移った。 [147] 1951年以来、オーストラリアはANZUS条約に基づきアメリカと同盟を結んでいる。[148]
戦後と現代

第二次世界大戦後の数十年間、オーストラリアは生活水準、余暇、郊外開発の著しい向上を享受した。[149] [150]政府はヨーロッパ全土からの大規模な移民の波を奨励し、そのような移民は「ニューオーストラリア人」と呼ばれた。[151]これには「人口増加か滅亡か」というスローガンを使ってオーストラリア人に正当化された白豪主義政策の緩和が必要だった。[152]
冷戦時代には西側陣営の一員であったオーストラリアは、1950年代の朝鮮戦争とマラヤ非常事態、 1962年から1972年にかけてのベトナム戦争に参加した。[153]この間、社会における共産主義の影響をめぐる緊張から、メンジーズ政権はオーストラリア共産党を禁止しようとしたが失敗に終わり、[154] 1955年には労働党が激しく分裂した。 [155]
1967年の国民投票の結果、連邦政府は先住民オーストラリア人に関する立法権を獲得し、先住民オーストラリア人は国勢調査に完全に含まれるようになった。[156] 植民地化以前の土地権益(オーストラリアでは先住権と呼ばれる)は、オーストラリア高等裁判所がマボ対クイーンズランド(第2号)において、ヨーロッパ人の入植当時、オーストラリアは無主地(「誰にも属さない土地」)でも「砂漠や未耕作地」でもなかったと判決を下したときに初めて法的に認められた。 [157] [158]
1973年に白豪主義政策の最後の名残が廃止された後、[159]オーストラリアの人口構成と文化は、主にアジアからの非ヨーロッパ系移民の大規模かつ継続的な波の結果として変化しました。[160] [161] 20世紀後半には、他の太平洋沿岸諸国との外交政策上のつながりに重点が置かれるようになりました。[162]オーストラリア法は、オーストラリアとイギリスの間に残っていた憲法上のつながりを断ち切りましたが、君主はオーストラリア女王としての独立した立場を維持しました。[163] [164] 1999年の憲法国民投票では、55%の有権者が君主制の廃止と共和国になることを拒否しました。[165]
9月11日の米国同時多発テロ事件後、オーストラリアは米国に加わり、2001年から2021年にかけてのアフガニスタン戦争、 2003年から2009年にかけてのイラク戦争に参加した。[166] 21世紀にはオーストラリアの貿易関係も東アジアに重点が置かれるようになり、中国が圧倒的にオーストラリア最大の貿易相手国となった。[167]
2020年のCOVID-19パンデミックの間、オーストラリアのいくつかの大都市は長期間にわたって封鎖され、 SARS-CoV-2ウイルスの拡散を遅らせるために国や州の境界を越えた自由な移動が制限されました。[168]
地理
一般的な特徴

インド洋と太平洋に囲まれたオーストラリアは、アラフラ海とティモール海によってアジアと隔てられており、クイーンズランド州沖には珊瑚海、オーストラリアとニュージーランドの間にはタスマン海が広がっている。世界最小の大陸[170]であり、総面積では6番目に大きい国[171] であるオーストラリアは、その大きさと孤立した状態から「島大陸」 [172] と呼ばれることが多く、世界最大の島と見なされることもある [173]。オーストラリアの海岸線は34,218 km (21,262 mi) (沖合の島を除く) あり[174]、 8,148,250平方キロメートル (3,146,060 sq mi) の広大な排他的経済水域を主張している。この排他的経済水域にはオーストラリア南極地域は含まれない[175]。
オーストラリア本土は、南緯9度から44度、東経112度から154度の間に位置しています。[8]オーストラリアは国土の広さから多様な景観を呈しており、北東部には熱帯雨林、南東部、南西部、東部には山脈、中央部には砂漠が広がっています。[176]一般にアウトバックとして知られる砂漠または半乾燥地帯が、圧倒的に広い面積を占めています。[177]オーストラリアは人が居住する大陸の中で最も乾燥しており、大陸部の平均年間降水量は500 mm未満です。[178]人口密度は1平方キロメートルあたり3.4人ですが、人口の大部分は温帯の南東部の海岸沿いに住んでいます。メルボルン中心部の人口密度は1平方キロメートルあたり19,500人を超えます。[179] 2021年、オーストラリアには世界の永久草地と牧草地の10%がありました。[180] 森林被覆はオーストラリアの総陸地面積の約17%です。[181] [182]

世界最大のサンゴ礁であるグレートバリアリーフ[183]は、北東海岸のすぐ沖にあり、2,000 km(1,200マイル)以上伸びています。世界最大の一枚岩であると言われているマウントオーガスタス[184]は、西オーストラリア州にあります。標高2,228メートル(7,310フィート)のコジオスコ山は、オーストラリア本土で最も高い山です。それよりも高いのは、遠く離れたオーストラリア領土のハード島にあるモーソンピーク(2,745メートル(9,006フィート))と、オーストラリア南極地域のマクリントック山とメンジーズ山で、それぞれ標高3,492メートル(11,457フィート)と3,355メートル(11,007フィート)です。[185]
オーストラリア東部は、クイーンズランド州、ニューサウスウェールズ州、ビクトリア州の大部分の海岸と平行に走るグレートディバイディング山脈によって特徴づけられている。この山脈の一部は低い丘陵で構成されており、高地は典型的には標高1,600メートル(5,200フィート)以下であるため、この名称は厳密には正確ではない。 [186]海岸沿いの高地とブリガロー草原の帯は海岸と山の間にあり、分水嶺山脈の内陸部は広大な草原と灌木地帯となっている。[186] [187]これらには、ニューサウスウェールズ州の西部平原、クイーンズランド州内陸部のミッチェルグラスダウンズとマルガランドが含まれる。[188] [189] [190] [191]本土の最北端は熱帯のケープヨーク半島である。[8]

熱帯気候であるトップエンドとガルフカントリーの風景には、森林、林地、湿地、草原、熱帯雨林、砂漠が含まれます。 [192] [193] [194]大陸の北西の角にはキンバリーの砂岩の崖と峡谷があり、その下にはピルバラがあります。ビクトリア平原の熱帯サバンナはキンバリーとアーネムランドのサバンナの南にあり、沿岸のサバンナと内陸の砂漠の間の移行部を形成しています。[195] [196] [197]国の中心部は中央オーストラリアの高地です。中央部と南部の顕著な特徴としては、有名な砂岩の一枚岩であるウルル(別名エアーズロック)、内陸部のシンプソン砂漠、ティラリ砂漠、スタート・ストーニー砂漠、ギブソン砂漠、グレート・サンディ砂漠、タナミ砂漠、グレート・ビクトリア砂漠があり、南海岸には有名なヌラボー平原がある。 [198] [199] [200] [201]西オーストラリア州のマルガ低木地帯は、内陸の砂漠と地中海性気候の南西オーストラリアの間にある。[200] [202]
地質学

インド・オーストラリアプレート上に位置するオーストラリア本土は、地球上で最も低く、最も原始的な陸地であり、比較的安定した地質学的歴史を持っています。[203] [204]この陸地には、地球の歴史の38億年以上にわたるすべての地質学的時代の、ほぼすべての既知の岩石タイプが含まれています。ピルバラクラトンは、地球上で確認されているわずか2つの原始的な始生代36億~27億年前(10億年前)の地殻のうちの1つです。 [205]
オーストラリア大陸は、すべての主要な超大陸の一部であったが、ペルム紀にゴンドワナ大陸が分裂し、大陸がアフリカ大陸とインド亜大陸から分離した後に形成され始めた。ペルム紀に始まり、白亜紀まで長期間にわたって南極大陸から分離した。[206]最終氷期が紀元前1万年頃に終了すると、海面上昇によりバス海峡が形成され、タスマニア島と本土が分断された。その後、紀元前8000年から6500年の間に、北部の低地が海に浸水し、ニューギニア島、アルー諸島、オーストラリア本土が分断された。[207]オーストラリア大陸は、年間6~7センチメートルの速度でユーラシア大陸に向かって移動している。 [208]
オーストラリア本土の大陸地殻は、薄い縁を除いて平均38kmの厚さがあり 、厚さの範囲は24kmから59kmです。[209]オーストラリアの地質はいくつかの主要なセクションに分けられ、大陸が西から東に向かって成長したことを示しています。主に西部に始生代のクラトンシールド、中央部に原生代の 褶曲帯、東部に顕生代の 堆積盆地、変成岩、火成岩があります。 [210]
オーストラリア本土とタスマニアはプレートの中央に位置し、活火山はないが[211] 、東オーストラリアホットスポットを通過したため、最近の火山活動は完新世に、ビクトリア州西部と南オーストラリア州南東部の新火山地域において発生した。火山活動はニューギニア島(地質学的にはオーストラリア大陸の一部とみなされている)やオーストラリア領外のハード島とマクドナルド諸島でも発生している。[212]オーストラリア本土とタスマニアの 地震活動も低く、1989年のニューカッスル地震では死者数が最多となった。[213]
気候

オーストラリアの気候は、インド洋ダイポールモード現象や、周期的な干ばつと相関関係にあるエルニーニョ南方振動、およびオーストラリア北部でサイクロンを発生させる季節的な熱帯低気圧などの海流の影響を大きく受けています。[215] [216]これらの要因により、降雨量は年によって大きく異なります。国の北部の大部分は熱帯性で、主に夏に降雨があります(モンスーン)。[178]国の南西部は地中海性気候です。[217]南東部は海洋性(タスマニア州とビクトリア州沿岸部)から湿潤亜熱帯性(ニューサウスウェールズ州の上部半分)までの範囲で、高地は高山性および亜寒帯海洋性気候です。内陸部は乾燥から半乾燥です。[178]
気候変動の影響で、1960年以降、平均気温は1℃以上上昇しています。降雨パターンや気候の極端な変化に伴う影響で、干ばつや山火事などの既存の問題が悪化しています。2019年はオーストラリア史上最も暖かい年となり、[218] 2019年から2020年の山火事シーズンは同国史上最悪となりました。[219] オーストラリアの一人当たりの温室効果ガス排出量は世界でもトップクラスです。[220]
オーストラリアでは、都市部の人口増加と局地的な干ばつによる慢性的な水不足に対応するため、多くの地域や都市で水制限が頻繁に実施されている。 [221] [222]大陸の大部分では、長期間の干ばつの後に大規模な洪水が定期的に発生し、内陸の河川系が流され、ダムが氾濫し、広大な内陸の氾濫原が浸水している。これは、 2000年代のオーストラリアの干ばつ後の2010年代初頭に東オーストラリア全域で発生した。[223]
生物多様性

オーストラリアの大部分は半乾燥地帯または砂漠ですが、高山のヒースから熱帯雨林まで、多様な生息地が広がっています。菌類はその多様性の典型で、推定25万種のうち、記載されているのはわずか5%ですが、オーストラリアに生息しています。[224]大陸の長い歴史、極端に変わりやすい気象パターン、長期にわたる地理的孤立により、オーストラリアの生物相の多くは独特です。顕花植物の約85%、哺乳類の84%、鳥類の45%以上、沿岸の温帯魚類の89%が固有種です。[225]オーストラリアには少なくとも755種の爬虫類が生息しており、世界のどの国よりも多いです。[226]南極大陸を除けば、オーストラリアはネコ科の種が存在しないまま発展した唯一の大陸です。野良猫は17世紀にオランダ船の難破船によって持ち込まれ、その後18世紀にはヨーロッパからの移住者によって持ち込まれたと考えられています。現在、野良猫は多くの脆弱で絶滅の危機に瀕した在来種の減少と絶滅の主要因であると考えられています。[227]アジアからの航海移民が最終氷期の終わりのいつか、おそらく4000年前にディンゴをオーストラリアに持ち込んだと考えられており、アボリジニの人々がペットとして大陸中にディンゴを分散させ、本土のフクロオオカミの絶滅に貢献しました。 [228]オーストラリアはまた、17のメガダイバーシティ国のうちの1つです。[229]
オーストラリアの森林は主に常緑樹でできており、特に乾燥していない地域ではユーカリが優勢である。乾燥した地域や砂漠では、ワトルが優勢な樹木となっている。[230]よく知られているオーストラリアの動物には、単孔類(カモノハシやハリモグラ)、カンガルー、コアラ、ウォンバットなどの有袋類、エミューやワライカワセミなどの鳥類がいる。[230]オーストラリアには、世界で最も毒の強いヘビなど、多くの危険な動物が生息している。 [231]ディンゴは、紀元前3000年頃にオーストラリア先住民と交易していたオーストロネシア人によって持ち込まれた。[232]多くの動物や植物の種は、人間の最初の定住後すぐに絶滅した。[233]これにはオーストラリアの大型動物相も含まれる。他の種も、ヨーロッパ人の定住以降に姿を消しており、その中にはフクロオオカミも含まれる。[ 234] [235]
オーストラリアの多くの生態地域、およびそれらの地域に生息する種は、人間の活動や外来の動物、クロミスタン、菌類、植物種によって脅かされています。[236]これらすべての要因により、オーストラリアは世界で最も高い哺乳類絶滅率を記録しています。[237]連邦環境保護および生物多様性保全法1999は、絶滅危惧種の保護のための法的枠組みです。[238]オーストラリアの生物多様性保全のための国家戦略に基づいて、ユニークな生態系を保護および保全するための多数の保護区が設定されています。 [239] [240] 65の湿地がラムサール条約に登録されており、[241] 16の世界自然遺産が確立されています。[242]オーストラリアは、2018年の環境パフォーマンス指数で世界178カ国中21位にランクされました。[243]オーストラリアの絶滅危惧種リストには1,800種以上の動物と植物が掲載されており、その中には500種以上の動物が含まれています。[244]古生物学者は、南オーストラリア州のマクグラスフラットで先史時代の熱帯雨林の化石遺跡を発見しました。これは、現在は乾燥した砂漠と乾燥した低木地帯/草原となっているこの場所に、かつては豊かな生命が生息していたことを示す証拠を示しています。 [245] [246]
政府と政治
オーストラリアは立憲君主制、議会制民主主義、連邦制の3つを兼ね備えた国である。[247]オーストラリアは1901年の連邦制成立以来、安定した自由民主主義の政治体制と並んで、ほとんど変わることのない憲法を維持してきた。オーストラリアは、連邦政府と州政府に権力が分かれている世界最古の連邦制の一つである。オーストラリアの政治体制は、イギリス(融合した行政、立憲君主制、強い政党規律)とアメリカ合衆国(連邦制、成文憲法、選挙で選ばれる上院による強い二院制)の政治体制から派生した要素を組み合わせたものであり、独特のハイブリッドとなっている。 [248] [249]
連邦政府の権力は3つのグループに部分的に分割されている。[250]
- 立法府:国王、上院、下院からなる二院制の議会
- 行政:内閣。首相(下院で多数派を占める政党または連立政権の党首)と彼らが選んだ他の大臣が率いる。正式には総督が任命する[251]
- 司法:高等裁判所およびその他の連邦裁判所
チャールズ3世はオーストラリア国王として君臨し、オーストラリアでは連邦レベルでは総督、州レベルでは知事が国王を代表している。総督は憲法第63条と慣例により、大臣の助言に基づいて行動する。 [252] [253]したがって、実際には総督は首相と内閣の行動の法的代表者として行動する。総督は状況によっては予備権限を行使することがある。予備権限とは、大臣の助言がない場合やそれに反する場合に行使できる権限である。これらの権限をいつ行使できるかは慣例によって定められており、その正確な範囲は不明である。これらの権限の最も顕著な行使は、 1975年の憲法危機におけるホイットラム政権の解任である。[254]
,_Parliament_House_--_2019_--_1746.jpg/500px-Canberra_(AU),_Parliament_House_--_2019_--_1746.jpg)
上院(上院)には76人の上院議員がおり、各州から12人ずつ、本土の準州(オーストラリア首都特別地域とノーザンテリトリー)から2人ずつである。[255]下院(下院)には151人の議員がおり、小選挙区(一般に「選挙区」または「議席」と呼ばれる)から選出される。選挙区は人口に基づいて各州に割り当てられ、現在の各州には最低5議席が保証されている。[256]下院の任期は最長3年であるが、これは固定されておらず、政府は通常、最長の6か月前のどこかの時点で下院を早期に解散して選挙を行う。[257]両院の選挙は通常同時に行われ、上院議員の任期は6年で重複するが、準州の議員の任期は固定されておらず、下院の選挙サイクルに結びついている。したがって、上院の76議席のうち、二重解散によって選挙サイクルが中断されない限り、各選挙で40議席のみが配分される。[255]
オーストラリアの選挙制度では、下院および全ての州・準州の下院選挙で優先投票制が採用されている(ヘア・クラーク方式を採用しているタスマニア州とオーストラリア首都特別地域は除く)。上院およびほとんどの州の上院は、各州で優先投票と比例代表制を組み合わせた比例代表制を採用している。すべての管轄区域で18歳以上のすべての登録市民は、投票および登録が義務付けられている。 [258] [259] [260]下院で過半数の支持を得た政党が政権を握り、その党首が首相となる。過半数の支持を得た政党がない場合、総督は憲法で定められた権限で首相を任命し、必要であれば議会の信任を失った首相を解任することができる。[261]オーストラリアは、強力な選挙で選ばれた上院を持つウェストミンスター議会制民主主義国家として運営されているという比較的ユニークな立場から、この制度は「ウォッシュミンスター変異体」と呼ばれることもある[248]。あるいは半議会制である[262] 。
連邦レベルでは通常、政府を形成する2つの主要な政治グループがある。オーストラリア労働党(ALP)と連合党で、連合党は自由党とその少数派である国民党の正式なグループである。[263] [264]州政府レベルでは、国民党と自由党の関係は異なり、クイーンズランド州とノーザンテリトリーでは両党が合併し(ただし、連邦議会議員は自由党か国民党のいずれかの党議席に座る)、ニューサウスウェールズ州、ビクトリア州、西オーストラリア州では連立政権を組み、南オーストラリア州とタスマニア州では自由党と競合している。[265]オーストラリアの政治文化では、連立政権は中道右派、労働党は中道左派と見なされている。[266]無所属議員といくつかの小政党がオーストラリア議会、主に上院で議席を獲得している。オーストラリア緑の党は、得票数と会員数の両方で第3位の政党であり、議会代表数では第4位の政党である。[267] [268]直近の連邦選挙は2022年5月21日に行われ、アンソニー・アルバネーゼ率いるオーストラリア労働党が政権に選出された。[269]
州および地域

Australia has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Victoria (Vic), Queensland (Qld), Western Australia (WA), South Australia (SA) and Tasmania (Tas)—and two mainland self-governing territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT).[270]
The states have the general power to make laws except in the few areas where the constitution grants the Commonwealth exclusive powers.[271][272] The Commonwealth can only make laws on topics listed in the constitution but its laws prevail over those of the states to the extent of any inconsistency.[273][274] Since Federation, the Commonwealth's power relative to the states has significantly increased due to the increasingly wide interpretation given to listed Commonwealth powers – and because of the states' heavy financial reliance on Commonwealth grants.[275][276]
Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister. The King is represented in each state by a governor. At the Commonwealth level, the King's representative is the governor-general.[277]
The Commonwealth government directly administers the internal Jervis Bay Territory and the other external territories: the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, the Heard Island and McDonald Islands, the Indian Ocean territories (Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands), Norfolk Island,[280] and the Australian Antarctic Territory.[281][282][251] The remote Macquarie Island and Lord Howe Island are part of Tasmania and New South Wales respectively.[283][284]
Foreign relations

Australia is a middle power,[38] whose foreign relations has three core bi-partisan pillars: commitment to the US alliance, engagement with the Indo-Pacific and support for international institutions, rules and co-operation.[285][286][287] Through the ANZUS pact and its status as a major non-NATO ally, Australia maintains a close relationship with the US, which encompasses strong defence, security and trade ties.[288][289] In the Indo-Pacific, the country seeks to increase its trade ties through the open flow of trade and capital, whilst managing the rise of Chinese power by supporting the existing rules based order.[286] Regionally, the country is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, the ASEAN+6 mechanism and the East Asia Summit. Internationally, the country is a member of the United Nations (of which it was a founding member), the Commonwealth of Nations, the OECD and the G20. This reflects the country's generally strong commitment to multilateralism.[290][291]
Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the AUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; the Five Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the Reciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan.
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Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation.[292] It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,[293][294] and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).[295][296] Beginning in the 2000s, Australia entered into the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership multilateral free trade agreements as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand, with the most recent deal signed in 2023 with the UK.[297]
Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement and free trade under the Closer Economic Relations agreement.[298] The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea.[299] It also maintains an international aid program under which some 75 countries receive assistance.[300] Australia ranked fourth in the Center for Global Development's 2021 Commitment to Development Index.[301]
The power over foreign policy is highly concentrated in the prime minister and the national security committee, with major decision such as joining the 2003 invasion of Iraq made with without prior Cabinet approval.[302][303] Similarly, the Parliament does not play a formal role in foreign policy and the power to declare war lies solely with the executive government.[304] The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade supports the executive in its policy decisions.
Military

The two main institutions involved in the management of Australia's armed forces are the Australian Defence Force (ADF) and the Department of Defence, together known as "Defence".[305] The Australian Defence Force is the military wing, headed by the chief of the defence force, and contains three branches: the Royal Australian Navy, the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force. In 2021, it had 84,865 currently serving personnel (including 60,286 regulars and 24,581 reservists).[306] The Department of Defence is the civilian wing and is headed by the secretary of defence. These two leaders collective manage Defence as a diarchy, with shared and joint responsibilities.[307] The titular role of commander-in-chief is held by the governor-general; however, actual command is vested in the chief of the Defence Force.[308] The executive branch of the Commonwealth government has overall control of the military through the minister of defence, who is subject to the decisions of Cabinet and its National Security Committee.[309] Major Australian intelligence agencies include the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (foreign intelligence), the Australian Signals Directorate (signals intelligence) and the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (domestic security).
In 2022, defence spending was 1.9% of GDP, representing the world's 13th-largest defence budget.[310] In 2024, the ADF had active operations in the Middle East and the Indo-Pacific (including security and aid provisions); was contributing to UN forces in relation to South Sudan, Syria–Israel peacekeeping, and North Korea; and domestically was assisting to prevent asylum-seekers enter the country and assisting in natural disaster relief.[311]
Human rights
Australia has generally strong protections for civil and political rights, and the country has signed up to a wide range of international rights treaties.[312] Important documents protecting human rights include the Constitution, the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992, and the Age Discrimination Act 2004.[313] Same-sex marriage has been legal in the nation since 2017.[314][315] Unlike other comparable Western democracies, Australia does not have a single federal charter of rights in the Constitution or under legislation; however, the ACT, Victoria, and Queensland have state-based ones.
International organisations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have expressed concerns in areas including asylum-seeker policy, Indigenous deaths in custody, the lack of entrenched rights protection, and laws restricting protesting.[316][317]
Economy

Australia's high-income mixed-market economy is rich in natural resources.[318] It is the world's fourteenth-largest by nominal terms, and the 18th-largest by PPP. As of 2021[update], it has the second-highest amount of wealth per adult, after Luxembourg,[319] and has the thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita.[320] Australia has a labour force of some 13.5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3.5% as of June 2022.[321] According to the Australian Council of Social Service, the poverty rate of Australia exceeds 13.6% of the population, encompassing 3.2 million. It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17.7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty.[322][323] The Australian dollar is the national currency, which is also used by three island states in the Pacific: Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu.[324]
Australian government debt, about $963 billion in June 2022, exceeds 45.1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's eighth-highest.[325] Australia had the second-highest level of household debt in the world in 2020, after Switzerland.[326] Its house prices are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas.[327] The large service sector accounts for about 71.2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25.3%), while its agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 3.6% of total GDP.[328] Australia is the world's 21st-largest exporter and 24th-largest importer.[329][330] China is Australia's largest trading partner by a wide margin, accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17.6% of its imports.[331] Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea.[332]
Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and was ranked fifth in the Human Development Index in 2021.[333] As of 2022[update], it is ranked twelfth in the Index of Economic Freedom and nineteenth in the Global Competitiveness Report.[334][335] It attracted 9.5 million international tourists in 2019,[336] and was ranked thirteenth among the countries of Asia-Pacific in 2019 for inbound tourism.[337] The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries.[338] Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45.7 billion.[337]
Energy
In 2021–22, Australia's generation of electricity was sourced from black coal (37.2%), brown coal (12%), natural gas (18.8%), hydro (6.5%), wind (11.1%), solar (13.3%), bio-energy (1.2%) and others (1.7%).[339][340] Total consumption of energy in this period was sourced from coal (28.4%), oil (37.3%), gas (27.4%) and renewables (7%).[341] From 2012 to 2022, the energy sourced from renewables has increased 5.7%, whilst energy sourced from coal has decreased 2.6%. The use of gas also increased by 1.5% and the use of oil stayed relatively stable with a reduction of only 0.2%.[342]
In 2020, Australia produced 27.7% of its electricity from renewable sources, exceeding the target set by the Commonwealth government in 2009 of 20% renewable energy by 2020.[343][344] A new target of 82% percent renewable energy by 2030 was set in 2022[345] and a target for net zero emissions by 2050 was set in 2021.[346]
Science and technology
In 2019, Australia spent $35.6 billion on research and development, allocating about 1.79% of GDP.[347] A recent study by Accenture for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people.[348] In addition, recent startup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne are already valued at $34 billion combined.[349] Australia ranked 24th in the Global Innovation Index 2023.[350]
With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed 4.1% of the world's published research in 2020, making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world.[351][352] CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities.[352] Its most notable contributions include the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy,[353] the essential components of Wi-Fi technology,[354] and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote.[355]
Australia is a key player in supporting space exploration. Facilities such as the Square Kilometre Array and Australia Telescope Compact Array radio telescopes, telescopes such as the Siding Spring Observatory, and ground stations such as the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex are of great assistance in deep space exploration missions, primarily by NASA.[356]
Demographics
Australia has a population density of 3.4 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between South East Queensland to the north-east and Adelaide to the south-west.[31]
Australia is also highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018.[357] Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.[31]
In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021 the average age of the population was 39 years.[358] In 2015, 2.15% of the Australian population lived overseas, one of the lowest proportions worldwide.[359]
Ancestry and immigration

Between 1788 and the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century. Following Federation in 1901, a strengthening of the white Australia policy restricted further migration from these areas. However, this policy was relaxed following WW2 and in the decades following, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades. All overt racial discrimination ended in 1973, with multiculturalism becoming official policy.[361] Subsequently, there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.[362]
Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations.[363][364] In 2022–23, 212,789 permanent migrants were admitted to Australia, with a net migration population gain of 518,000 people inclusive of non-permanent residents.[365][366] Most entered on skilled visas,[362] however the immigration program also offers visas for family members and refugees.[367]
The Australian Bureau of Statistics asks each Australian resident to nominate up to two ancestries each census and the responses are classified into broad ancestry groups.[368][369] At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestry groups as a proportion of the total population were:[370] 57.2% European (including 46% North-West European and 11.2% Southern and Eastern European), 33.8% Oceanian,[N 8] 17.4% Asian (including 6.5% Southern and Central Asian, 6.4% North-East Asian, and 4.5% South-East Asian), 3.2% North African and Middle Eastern, 1.4% Peoples of the Americas, and 1.3% Sub-Saharan African. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:[N 9][4]
- English (33%)
- Australian (29.9%)[N 10]
- Irish (9.5%)
- Scottish (8.6%)
- Chinese (5.5%)
- Italian (4.4%)
- German (4%)
- Indian (3.1%)
- Aboriginal (2.9%)[N 11]
- Greek (1.7%)
- Filipino (1.6%)
- Dutch (1.5%)
- Vietnamese (1.3%)
- Lebanese (1%)
At the 2021 census, 3.8% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous—Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.[N 12][373]
Language
Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is the de facto official and national language.[374][375] Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,[376] and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling.[377] General Australian serves as the standard dialect.[378] The Australian sign language known as Auslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.[379]
At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home were Mandarin (2.7%), Arabic (1.4%), Vietnamese (1.3%), Cantonese (1.2%) and Punjabi (0.9%).[380]
Over 250 Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact.[381] The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered.[382] The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians — Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole), Djambarrpuyngu (a Yolŋu language) and Pitjantjatjara (a Western Desert language) were among the most widely spoken.[383] NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.[384]
Religion

Australia has no state religion; section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the Australian government from making any law to establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion.[385] However, the states still retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.[386]
At the 2021 census, 38.9% of the population identified as having "no religion",[4] up from 15.5% in 2001.[387] The largest religion is Christianity (43.9% of the population).[4] The largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church (20% of the population) and the Anglican Church of Australia (9.8%). Non-British immigration since the Second World War has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%), Hinduism (2.7%), Buddhism (2.4%), Sikhism (0.8%), and Judaism (0.4%).[388][4]
In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions.[4] In Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.[389]
Health
Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females)[390] is the fifth-highest in the world. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world,[391] while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.[392][393] Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women[394] and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults;[395] 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.[396]
Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021.[397] It introduced a national insurance scheme in 1975.[398] Following a period in which access to the scheme was restricted, the scheme became universal once more in 1981 under the name of Medicare.[399] The program is nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently at 2%.[400] The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.[398]
Education
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School attendance, or registration for home schooling,[401] is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories; however, the Commonwealth has significant influence through funding agreements.[402] Since 2014, a national curriculum developed by the Commonwealth has been implemented by the states and territories.[403] Attendance rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16.[404][405] In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship.[406][407][408][409] According to the 2022 PISA evaluations, Australian 15-year-olds ranked ninth in the OECD for reading and science and tenth for maths. However, less than 60% of Australian students achieved the National Proficiency Standard – 51% in maths, 58% in science and 57% in reading.[410][411]
Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003.[412] However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that 44% of the population does not have high literary and numeracy competence levels, interpreted by others as suggesting that they do not have the "skills needed for everyday life".[413][414][415]
Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.[416] The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.[417] There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.[418] About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications[419] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 30.9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.[420][421][422]
Australia has the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019.[423][424] Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas.[425] Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed over $28 billion to the economy in 2016–17.[352]
Culture

Contemporary Australian culture reflects the country's Indigenous traditions, Anglo-Celtic heritage, and post-1945 history of multicultural immigration.[427][428][429] The culture of the United States has also been influential.[430] The evolution of Australian culture since British colonisation has given rise to distinctive cultural traits.[431][432]
Many Australians identify egalitarianism, mateship, irreverence and a lack of formality as part of their national identity.[433][434][435] These find expression in Australian slang, as well as Australian humour, which is often characterised as dry, irreverent and ironic.[436][437] New citizens and visa holders are required to commit to "Australian values", which are identified by the Department of Home Affairs as including: a respect for the freedom of the individual; recognition of the rule of law; opposition to racial, gender and religious discrimination; and an understanding of the "fair go", which is said to encompass the equality of opportunity for all and compassion for those in need.[438] What these values mean, and whether or not Australians uphold them, has been debated since before Federation.[439][440][441][442]
Arts

Australia has over 100,000 Aboriginal rock art sites,[444] and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic Robert Hughes;[445] its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye.[446] Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land.[447] The impressionistic works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and other members of the 19th-century Heidelberg School—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation.[447] While the school remained influential into the 1900s, modernists such as Margaret Preston and Clarice Beckett, and, later, Sidney Nolan, explored new artistic trends.[447] The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist Albert Namatjira,[448] as well as Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the figurative and the abstract.[447][449]
Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older.[450] In the 19th century, Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary.[451] Their works are still popular; Paterson's bush poem "Waltzing Matilda" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem.[452] Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life.[453] Its first recipient, Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973.[454] Australian Booker Prize winners include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan.[455] Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist Germaine Greer and philosopher Peter Singer.[456]

In the performing arts, Aboriginal peoples have traditions of religious and secular song, dance and rhythmic music often performed in corroborees.[457] At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers,[458] and later popular music acts such as the Bee Gees, AC/DC, INXS and Kylie Minogue achieved international recognition.[459] Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the Australian government's Australia Council.[460] There is a symphony orchestra in each state,[461] and a national opera company, Opera Australia,[462] well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland.[463] Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.[464]
Media

The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era.[465] After World War I, Hollywood monopolised the industry,[466] and by the 1960s Australian film production had effectively ceased.[467] With the benefit of government support, the Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as Picnic at Hanging Rock, Wake in Fright and Gallipoli,[468] while Crocodile Dundee and the Ozploitation movement's Mad Max series became international blockbusters.[469] In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7.7% share of the local box office in 2015.[470] The AACTAs are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger.[471]
Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,[472] and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper,[472] and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review.[472] In 2020, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 25th on a list of 180 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (33rd) and United States (44th).[473] This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;[474] most print media are under the control of News Corporation (59%) and Nine Entertainment Co (23%).[475]
Cuisine

Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker.[476] It has increased in popularity among non-Indigenous Australians since the 1970s, with examples such as lemon myrtle, the macadamia nut and kangaroo meat now widely available.[477][478]
The first colonists introduced British and Irish cuisine to the continent.[479][480] This influence is seen in dishes such as fish and chips, and in the Australian meat pie, which is related to the British steak pie. Also during the colonial period, Chinese migrants paved the way for a distinctive Australian Chinese cuisine.[481]
Post-war migrants transformed Australian cuisine, bringing with them their culinary traditions and contributing to new fusion dishes.[482] Italians introduced espresso coffee and, along with Greeks, helped develop Australia's café culture, of which the flat white and avocado toast are now considered Australian staples.[483][484] Pavlovas, lamingtons, Vegemite and Anzac biscuits are also often called iconic Australian foods.[485]
Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of wine.[486] Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.[487] The nation also ranks highly in beer consumption,[488] with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries.
Sport and recreation

The most popular sports in Australia by adult participation are: swimming, athletics, cycling, soccer, golf, tennis, basketball, surfing, netball and cricket.[490]
Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era,[491] and has hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney.[492] It is also set to host the 2032 Games in Brisbane.[493] Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games,[494] hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and 2018.[495]
Cricket is a major national sport.[496] The Australian national cricket team competed against England in the first Test match (1877) and the first One Day International (1971), and against New Zealand in the first Twenty20 International (2004), winning all three games.[497] It has also won the men's Cricket World Cup a record six times.[498]
Australia has professional leagues for four football codes, whose relative popularity is divided geographically.[499] Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, Australian rules football attracts the most television viewers in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where rugby league holds sway, followed by rugby union.[500] Soccer, while ranked fourth in television viewers and resources, has the highest overall participation rates.[501]
The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia in the early 20th century, following the relaxation of laws prohibiting daylight bathing on Australian beaches. The volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons.[502][503]
See also
Notes
- ^ Australia also has a royal anthem, "God Save the King", which may be played in place of or alongside the national anthem when members of the royal family are present. If not played alongside the royal anthem, the national anthem is instead played at the end of an official event.[1]
- ^ Sydney is the largest city based on Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (GCCSAs). These represent labour markets and the functional area of Australian capital cities.[2] Melbourne is larger based on ABS Significant Urban Areas (SUAs). These represent Urban Centres, or groups of contiguous Urban Centres, that contain a population of 10,000 people or more.[3]
- ^ The religion question is optional in the Australian census.
- ^ a b There are minor variations from three basic time zones; see Time in Australia.
- ^ The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in "A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo, written by Sir Richard Hakluyt", published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus, a corruption of the original Spanish name "Austrialia del Espíritu Santo" (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit)[44][45][46] for an island in Vanuatu.[47] The Dutch adjectival form australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south.[48]
- ^ For instance, the 1814 work A Voyage to Terra Australis.
- ^ Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the Southern Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean as defined by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations defined the term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between Antarctica and 60° south latitude.[169]
- ^ Includes those who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry.[4] The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial Anglo-Celtic European ancestry.[371]
- ^ Each person may nominate more than one ancestry, so total may exceed 100%.[372]
- ^ The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial Anglo-Celtic European ancestry.[371]
- ^ Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not include Torres Strait Islanders. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) which is a separate question.
- ^ Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
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This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023, FAO, FAO.
Bibliography
- Davison, Graeme; Hirst, John; Macintyre, Stuart (1998). The Oxford Companion to Australian History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1955-3597-6.
- Flood, Josephine (2019). The Original Australians: The Story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen and Unwin. ISBN 9781760527075.
- Jupp, James (2001). The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5218-0789-0.
- Jupp, James; Director Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies James Jupp (2001). The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5218-0789-0.
- Smith, Bernard; Smith, Terry (1991). Australian painting 1788–1990. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1955-4901-0.
- Teo, Hsu-Ming; White, Richard (2003). Cultural history in Australia. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-8684-0589-6.
Further reading
- Blainey, Geoffrey (2015). The Story of Australia's People, Volume 1: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Australia, Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Vic. ISBN 978-0-6700-7871-4
- Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000). A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-17962-7.
- Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds.) (2011). The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5218-8857-8.
- Hughes, Robert (1986). The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-50668-5.
- Milne, John (1886). Colonial facts and fictions: Humorous sketches. United Kingdom: Chatto and Windus.
- Kemp, David (2018). The Land of Dreams: How Australians Won Their Freedom, 1788–1860. Melbourne University Publishing. ISBN 978-0-5228-7334-4. OCLC 1088319758.
- Powell, J.M. (1988). An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25619-3
- Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J., and Tranter, P.J. (2000). Australia and New Zealand: Economy, Society and Environment. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-340-72033-2 paperback, ISBN 978-0-340-72032-5 hardback.
External links
- Australia profile on The World Factbook
- Australia profile from BBC News
- Australia profile from the OECD
- Australia at Curlie
Wikimedia Atlas of Australia
Geographic data related to Australia at OpenStreetMap
Government
- Parliament of Australia
- Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
- National Archives of Australia
- Australian Bureau of Statistics
Travel
- Official website of Tourism Australia
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