| COVID-19 パンデミック | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2020年5月、サンパウロの集中治療室で重篤なCOVID-19患者を治療する医療専門家たち | |||||||
2023年12月20日時点の人口10万人あたりの死亡者数 | |||||||
| |||||||
| 病気 | 新型コロナウイルス感染症(COVID-19) | ||||||
| ウイルス | 重症急性呼吸器症候群 コロナウイルス2(SARS-CoV-2) | ||||||
| ソース | コウモリ、[1]間接的に[2] | ||||||
| 位置 | 全世界 | ||||||
| インデックスケース | 武漢、中国 30°37′11″N 114°15′28″E / 30.61972°N 114.25778°E / 30.61972; 114.25778 | ||||||
| 日付 | WHOがパンデミックと判定:2020年3月11日(4年6ヶ月前)[3]
国際的に懸念される公衆衛生上の緊急事態:2020年1月30日~2023年5月5日(3年3ヶ月5日)[4] | ||||||
| 感染者(数 | 776,280,466 [5](実際の感染者数はこれよりはるかに多いと予想される[6]) | ||||||
死亡者(数 | 7,065,867 [5](報告数) 1820万~3350万[7](推定) | ||||||
| 死亡率 | 2023年3月10日現在:1.02% [8] [更新が必要] | ||||||
重症急性呼吸器症候群コロナウイルス2(SARS-CoV-2)によって引き起こされるCOVID-19パンデミック(コロナウイルスパンデミック、COVIDパンデミックとも呼ばれる)は、2019年12月に中国の武漢で発生したCOVID-19の流行から始まりました。それはアジアの他の地域に広がり、その後2020年初頭には世界中に広がりました。世界保健機関(WHO)は、2020年1月30日にこの流行を国際的に懸念される公衆衛生上の緊急事態(PHEIC)と宣言し、3月11日にこの流行がパンデミックになったと評価しました。[3]
COVID-19の症状は、無症状から致命的なものまで様々ですが、最も一般的な症状は、発熱、喉の痛み、夜間の咳、倦怠感です。ウイルスは空気中の粒子を介して伝染することが多いです。突然変異により、感染性や毒性の程度が異なる多くの株(変異体)が生じています。[9] COVID-19ワクチンは急速に開発され、2020年12月から一般市民に配布され、ワクチンの公平性を提供することを目指して、政府やCOVAXなどの国際プログラムを通じて提供されています。治療には、新しい抗ウイルス薬と症状のコントロールが含まれます。公衆衛生上の緊急事態における一般的な緩和策には、旅行制限、ロックダウン、事業制限と閉鎖、職場の危険管理、マスク着用義務、検疫、検査システム、感染者の接触者追跡などがありました。
パンデミックは世界中で深刻な社会的、経済的混乱を引き起こし、大恐慌以来最大の世界的不況を招いた[10]。サプライチェーンの混乱と買いだめにより、食糧不足を含む広範囲にわたる供給不足が生じた。人間の活動が減ったことで、一時的に汚染が前例のないほど減少した。多くの管轄区域で教育機関や公共エリアが部分的または全面的に閉鎖され、2020年から2021年にかけて多くのイベントが中止または延期された。パンデミックが進展するにつれ、ホワイトカラー労働者の間でテレワークがより一般的になった。ソーシャルメディアやマスメディアを通じて誤情報が広まり、政治的緊張が高まった。パンデミックは、人種差別や地理的差別、健康の公平性、公衆衛生上の要請と個人の権利のバランスといった問題を提起した。
WHOは2023年5月5日にCOVID-19のPHEICを終了した。[4]この病気は引き続き蔓延しているが、2024年時点では専門家はそれがまだパンデミックであるかどうか確信が持てなかった。[11] [12]パンデミックとその終焉は明確に定義されておらず、パンデミックが終わったかどうかは使用される定義によって異なります。[11] [13] 2024年9月29日現在、COVID-19により確認された死者は7,065,867人[5]に上ります。COVID-19のパンデミックは、史上5番目に死者が多いパンデミックまたは伝染病としてランクされています。
用語

パンデミック
疫学では、パンデミックは「非常に広い地域で発生し、国境を越え、通常は多数の人々に影響を及ぼす伝染病」と定義されています。COVID-19パンデミックの間も、他のパンデミックと同様に、この用語の意味は疑問視されてきました。[14]
パンデミックやその他の伝染病の終息は、病気が完全に消滅することを伴うことはまれであり、歴史的に見ても、伝染病の終息の定義は、その始まりの定義に比べてはるかに少ない注意が払われてきた。特定の伝染病の終息は、学術分野によって異なり、場所や社会集団によっても異なる、さまざまな方法で定義されてきた。伝染病の終息は、生物学的な現象だけでなく、社会現象として考えることができる。[13]
タイム誌は2024年3月に、COVID-19が風土病かパンデミックかに関して専門家の意見が分かれており、WHOはウェブサイトで引き続きこの病気をパンデミックと呼んでいると報じた。 [15]
ウイルス名
武漢での最初の流行時には、ウイルスと疾患は一般に「コロナウイルス」、「武漢コロナウイルス」、「コロナウイルスの流行」、「武漢コロナウイルスの流行」[17]と呼ばれ、疾患は「武漢肺炎」と呼ばれることもあった。[18] [19] 2020年1月、WHOは、社会的偏見を防ぐため、地理的な場所(例:中国の武漢)、動物種、または人々のグループを疾患名やウイルス名に使用しないという2015年の国際ガイドラインに従い、ウイルスと疾患の暫定的な名前として2019-nCoV [20]と2019-nCoV急性呼吸器疾患[21]を推奨した。[22] WHOは2020年2月11日にCOVID-19とSARS-CoV-2の正式名称を確定した。[23]テドロス・アダノム・ゲブレイェソスは、COはコロナ、VIはウイルス、Dは病気、 19は発生が最初に確認された日(2019年12月31日)を表していると説明した。[24] WHOはさらに、公の場で「COVID-19ウイルス」と「COVID-19の原因ウイルス」という言葉を使用している。[23]
WHOは懸念される変異体と関心のある変異体をギリシャ文字で命名した。変異体が特定された場所に応じて命名する当初の慣習(例えば、デルタは「インド変異体」として始まった)は、現在では一般的ではない。[25]より体系的な命名体系は、変異体のPANGO系統(例えば、オミクロンの系統はB.1.1.529)を反映しており、他の変異体にも使用されている。[26] [27] [28]
疫学
| 国レベルのデータについては、以下を参照してください。 | |
|
2024年9月29日現在
|
背景
SARS-CoV-2はコウモリコロナウイルス[29] 、センザンコウコロナウイルス[30]、[31]、SARS-CoV [32]と近縁のウイルスです。最初の既知のアウトブレイク(中国本土での2019~2020年のCOVID-19アウトブレイク)は、2019年12月に中国湖北省武漢で始まりました。 [33]初期の症例の多くは、そこの華南海鮮卸売市場を訪れた人々と関連していましたが、 [34] [35] [36]、人から人への感染はもっと早くから始まっていた可能性があります。[37] [38] 分子時計分析によると、最初の症例は2019年10月から11月の間だった可能性が高いことが示唆されています。[39]
科学的なコンセンサスとしては、このウイルスはコウモリや他の近縁哺乳類に由来する人獣共通感染症である可能性が高いということである。 [37] [40] [41] SARS-CoV-2が実験室から誤って放出されたのではないかという推測など、他の説明も提案されているが、[42] [43] [44] 2021年時点では、これらは証拠によって裏付けられていない。[45]
事例
公式の「症例」数とは、症状の有無にかかわらず、公式プロトコルに従ってCOVID-19の検査を受け、陽性と確認された人の数を指します。 [46] [47]サンプリングバイアスの影響により、ランダムサンプルから外挿してより正確な数値を取得する研究では、感染者の総数が報告された症例数を大幅に上回ることが一貫して判明しています。[48] [49]多くの国では、早い段階で、症状が軽い人は検査しないという公式の方針がありました。[50] [51]重症化の最も強いリスク要因は、肥満、糖尿病の合併症、不安障害、および病気の総数です。[52]
COVID-19パンデミックの初期段階では、若者が感染する可能性が低いのか、症状を発症して検査を受ける可能性が低いのかは明らかではありませんでした。[53]中国で行われた後ろ向きコホート研究では、子供と大人の感染可能性は同じであることがわかりました。[54]
より徹底した研究の中で、 2020年4月9日の予備結果によると、ドイツの大規模な感染クラスターの中心地であるガンゲルトでは、人口サンプルの15%が抗体検査で陽性であったことがわかりました。[55]ニューヨーク市の妊婦とオランダの献血者を対象としたCOVID-19のスクリーニングでは、報告されているよりも多くの感染を示す陽性抗体検査率が見つかりました。 [56] [57] 血清有病率に基づく推定値は控えめで、一部の研究では軽症の人は検出可能な抗体を持っていないことを示しています。[58]
2020年1月のCOVID-19の基本再生産数(R0 )の当初の推定値は1.4~2.5であったが[59]、その後の分析では約5.7(95%信頼区間は3.8~8.9)である可能性があると主張した。[60]
2021年12月、新たなCOVID-19変異株など、いくつかの要因により、感染者数は増加し続けました。 12月28日時点で、世界中で2億8,279万822人の感染が確認されています。[61] 2022年4月14日現在[update]、世界中で5億人を超える感染者が確認されています。[62]ほとんどの感染者は未確認であり、健康指標評価研究所は、 2022年初頭の時点での実際の感染者数は数十億人と推定しています。[63] [64]

検査陽性率
公衆衛生当局や政策立案者がパンデミックを監視し、意思決定の指針とするために使用する指標の1つは、検査陽性率(「陽性率」)である。2020年のジョンズ・ホプキンス大学によると、「高すぎる」陽性率の1つのベンチマークは5%であり、これは過去にWHOが使用していたものである。[65] 2024年7月22日から8月18日までの4週間の報告期間の終わりに、WHOは毎週のSARS-CoV-2 PCR検査陽性率が10.2%であると報告した。[66]
死亡者(数



2023年3月10日現在、COVID-19による死亡者は688 万人を超えている[8] 。最初の死亡が確認されたのは2020年1月9日の武漢であった[68]。これらの数字は地域や時期によって異なり、検査量、医療システムの質、治療の選択肢、政府の対応、[69]最初の発生からの時間、年齢、性別、全体的な健康状態などの人口特性の影響を受ける。[70]
死亡率を定量化するために複数の手段が用いられる。[71]公式の死亡者数には通常、検査で陽性と判明した後に死亡した人が含まれる。このような数には検査を受けずに死亡した人は含まれない。 [72]逆に、検査で陽性と判明した後に基礎疾患で死亡した人の死亡も含まれる場合がある。 [73]ベルギーなどの国では、検査を受けていない人も含めて疑いのある症例による死亡者も含め、死亡者数を増加させている。[74]
公式の死亡者数は実際の死者数を過小報告していると主張されている。なぜなら、超過死亡率(ある期間の死亡者数を長期平均と比較した数)のデータは、COVID-19による死亡者数だけでは説明できない増加を示しているからである。[75]こうしたデータを用いて、COVID-19による世界の真の死者数は、エコノミスト誌では2023年11月18日までに1,820万~3,350万人(≈2,740万人)と推定されている。[75]また、健康指標評価研究所では2023年4月1日までに1,850万人を超えると推定されている。[76] また、包括的な国際研究では、2020年1月1日から2021年12月31日までの間に≈1,820万人(それより前)の死亡者が出ると推定されている。[77]このような死亡者には、医療能力の制約や優先順位、(感染を避けるため)治療を受けることをためらうことによる死亡が含まれる。[78]さらなる研究により、COVID-19が直接引き起こした割合とパンデミックの間接的な影響によって引き起こされた割合を区別するのに役立つ可能性があります。[77]
2022年5月、WHOは2021年末までに報告されたCOVID-19による死者540万人に対して1,490万人の超過死亡者が出ると推定した。報告されていない950万人の死者の大半は間接的な死ではなく、ウイルスによる直接的な死であると考えられている。一部の死者は、他の病気の人が医療サービスを受けられなかったために亡くなった。[79] [80]
2022年12月のWHOの研究では、2020年と2021年のパンデミックによる過剰死亡を推定し、再び約1,480万人の過剰早期死亡が発生したと結論付け、5月の以前の計算を再確認して詳細化し、批判に対処して更新しました。これらの数字には失われた潜在的な寿命の年数などの指標は含まれておらず、パンデミックが2021年の死因の第1位になる可能性があります。[81] [82] [67]
症状の発症から死亡までの期間は 6日から41日で、通常は約14日です。[83]死亡率は年齢とともに増加します。死亡リスクが最も高いのは高齢者と基礎疾患のある人です。[84] [85]
-
世界および現在の上位 6 か国における COVID-19 による週ごとの死亡者数の片対数グラフ (感染者数を含む平均値)
-
予想死亡数に対する過剰死亡数(パターンは各国で入手可能な全死亡率データの質を示している。)[67]
-
予想死亡数に対する超過死亡数(世界およびWHO地域)[67]
-
2020年1月から2021年12月までのCOVID-19パンデミックによる推定超過死亡数が最も多かった25か国[67]
-
平均Pスコア(予想死亡数に対する過剰死亡数)が最も高かった25か国[67]
感染致死率(IFR)
感染致死率(IFR)は、疾患による累計死亡者数を累計感染者数(無症状および未診断の感染者を含み、ワクチン接種を受けた感染者を除く)で割ったものである。[87] [88] [89]これはパーセンテージポイントで表される。[90]他の研究では、この指標を感染致死リスクと呼んでいる。[91] [92]
2020年11月、ネイチャー誌のレビュー記事では、高齢者介護施設での死亡者を除いた各国の人口加重IFRの推定値が報告され、中央値の範囲は0.24%~1.49%であることがわかった。[93] IFRは年齢とともに上昇する(10歳で0.002%、25歳で0.01%から、55歳で0.4%、65歳で1.4%、75歳で4.6%、85歳で15%)。これらの率は、年齢層によって約10,000倍異なる。[86]ちなみに、中年成人のIFRは、致命的な自動車事故の年間リスクよりも2桁高く、季節性インフルエンザで死亡するリスクよりもはるかに高い。[86]
2020年12月、システマティックレビューとメタアナリシスでは、人口加重IFRは、一部の国(フランス、オランダ、ニュージーランド、ポルトガル)では0.5%~1%、その他の国(オーストラリア、イギリス、リトアニア、スペイン)では1%~2%、イタリアでは約2.5%と推定されました。この研究では、違いのほとんどは、人口の年齢構成と感染の年齢別パターンの対応する違いを反映していると報告されています。[86]また、今回のパンデミックの致死率をMERS-CoVなどの過去のパンデミックと比較したレビューもあります。[94]
比較すると、米国における季節性インフルエンザの感染死亡率は0.1%で、COVID-19の13倍低い。[95]
致死率(CFR)
死亡率を評価するもう一つの指標は、死亡者数と診断数の比率である致死率(CFR)[a]です。この指標は、症状の発現から死亡までの遅延と、検査が症状のある個人に焦点を当てているため、誤解を招く可能性があります。[96]
ジョンズ・ホプキンス大学の統計によると、 2023年3月10日現在、世界のCFRは1.02%(6,881,955人の死亡、676,609,955人の感染)でした。[8]この数値は地域によって異なり、一般的に時間の経過とともに減少しています。[97]
病気
バリエーション
WHOはいくつかの変異株に名前をつけ、懸念される変異株(VoC)または関心のある変異株(VoI)として分類している。これらの変異株の多くは、より感染力の高いD614Gを共有している。2023年5月現在、WHOは新たな感染では検出されなくなったため、懸念されるすべての変異株を以前に循環していた株に格下げした。[98] [99]オミクロン変異株の亜系統(BA.1~BA.5)は、2023年3月に広く循環していないとして格下げされるまで、WHOによって別々のVoCと見なされていた。[99] 2024年9月24日現在[update]、世界保健機関(WHO)が指定する関心のある変異株はBA.2.86とJN.1であり、監視下の変異株はJN.1.7、KP.2、KP.3、KP.3.1.1、JN.1.18、LB.1、およびXECである。[100]
兆候と症状

COVID-19の症状は、軽度から重度まで様々である。[103] [104]一般的な症状には、頭痛、嗅覚と味覚の喪失、鼻づまりと鼻水、咳、筋肉痛、喉の痛み、発熱、下痢、呼吸困難などがある。[103]同じ感染症の人でも症状が異なり、症状は時間の経過とともに変化する可能性がある。3つの一般的な症状クラスターが特定されている。咳、痰、息切れ、発熱を伴う呼吸器症状クラスター、筋肉痛と関節痛、頭痛、疲労を伴う筋骨格症状クラスター、腹痛、嘔吐、下痢を伴う消化器症状クラスターである。[105]以前に耳、鼻、喉の疾患のない人では、味覚の喪失と嗅覚の喪失の組み合わせがCOVID-19に関連しており、症例の88%で報告されている。[106] [107] [108]
伝染 ; 感染
この病気は主に呼吸器系を介して感染し、感染者が呼吸、会話、咳、くしゃみ、歌唱時に吐き出す飛沫や小さな空気中の粒子(エアロゾルを形成する)を吸い込むことで感染します。 [109] [110] [111] [112]感染者は、他の非感染者と物理的に接近している場合、COVID-19を感染させる可能性が高くなります。ただし、特に屋内では、より長い距離で感染が発生することもあります。[109] [113]
原因

SARS-CoV-2は、コロナウイルスとして知られる広範なウイルスファミリーに属します。[114]これはプラス鎖一本鎖RNA(+ssRNA)ウイルスであり、単一の線状RNAセグメントを持っています。コロナウイルスは、ヒト、家畜やペットを含む他の哺乳類、および鳥類に感染します。[115]
ヒトコロナウイルスは、風邪から中東呼吸器症候群(MERS、致死率≈34%)などのより重篤な疾患まで、さまざまな病気を引き起こす可能性があります。SARS-CoV-2は、 229E、NL63、OC43、HKU1、MERS-CoV、およびオリジナルのSARS-CoVに続いて、人に感染する7番目のコロナウイルスです。[116]
診断

SARS-CoV-2の存在を検査する標準的な方法は核酸検査であり、[117]ウイルスRNA断片の存在を検出する。[118]これらの検査ではRNAは検出されるが感染性ウイルスは検出されないため、「患者の感染期間を決定する能力は限られている」。[119]この検査は通常、鼻咽頭スワブで採取した呼吸器サンプルで行われるが、鼻腔スワブや痰サンプルも使用されることがある。[120] [121] WHOはこの疾患に関するいくつかの検査プロトコルを発表している。[122]
防止
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感染の可能性を減らすための予防策としては、ワクチン接種を受けること、家にいるか屋外で過ごす時間を増やすこと、混雑した場所を避けること、他人との距離を保つこと、公共の場ではマスクを着用すること、屋内の換気を行うこと、潜在的な曝露時間を管理すること、石鹸と水で頻繁に少なくとも20秒間手を洗うこと、良好な呼吸衛生を実践すること、洗っていない手で目、鼻、口に触れないようにすることなどが挙げられる。[123] [124]
COVID-19と診断された人や感染の可能性があると思われる人は、医療を受ける場合を除いて自宅待機し、医療機関を受診する前に事前電話をし、医療機関に入る前にマスクを着用し、他の人と一緒に部屋や車内にいるときはティッシュで咳やくしゃみを覆い、定期的に石鹸と水で手を洗い、個人の家庭用品を共有しないようにすることが医療当局から勧告されている。[125] [126] [127]
ワクチン

COVID-19ワクチンは、新型コロナウイルス感染症(COVID-19 )を引き起こすウイルスである重症急性呼吸器症候群コロナウイルス2 (SARS-CoV-2)に対する獲得免疫を提供することを目的としています。COVID-19パンデミック以前には、重症急性呼吸器症候群(SARS)や中東呼吸器症候群(MERS)などの疾患を引き起こすコロナウイルスの構造と機能に関する確立された知識が存在していました。この知識により、 2020年初頭にさまざまなワクチンプラットフォームの開発が加速しました。[128] SARS-CoV-2ワクチンの当初の焦点は、症状のある重篤な病気の予防でした。[129] COVID-19ワクチンは、COVID-19による重症度と死亡率を軽減する役割を果たしていると広く評価されています。[130] [131]
2023年3月現在、197か国以上で55億人以上が1回以上の接種を受けている[132](合計118億回)。オックスフォード・アストラゼネカのワクチンが最も広く使用されている。[133] 2022年6月の調査によると、COVID-19ワクチンは2020年12月8日から2021年12月8日までの間に185の国と地域でさらに1,440万~1,980万人の死亡を防いだ。[134] [135]
2022年11月8日、英国で最初の組み換えタンパク質ベースのCOVID-19ワクチン(ノババックス社のブースターNuvaxovid)が成人への使用が承認されました。その後、WHO、米国、欧州連合、オーストラリアから承認/認可を受けています。[136] [137]
2022年11月12日、WHOは世界ワクチン市場報告書を発表した。報告書は「不公平な配布はCOVID-19ワクチンに限ったことではない」と指摘し、経済的に強くない国はワクチンの入手に苦労していると述べた。[138]
2022年11月14日、中国のバイオ医薬品会社CanSino Biologicsが開発した初の吸入ワクチンが中国上海市で導入された。[139]
処理
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パンデミックの最初の2年間は、特異的かつ効果的な治療法や治癒法はなかった。[140] [141] 2021年、欧州医薬品庁(EMA)のヒト用医薬品委員会(CHMP)は、経口抗ウイルスプロテアーゼ阻害剤であるパクスロビド(ニルマトレルビルとHIV抗ウイルス薬リトナビルの併用)を成人患者の治療薬として承認した。[ 142 ] FDAは後にEUAを付与した。[143]
COVID-19の症例のほとんどは軽症です。これらの症例では、症状(発熱、[144]体の痛み、咳)を緩和するためのパラセタモールやNSAIDsなどの薬剤、十分な経口水分摂取、休息などによる支持療法が行われます。 [141] [145]良好な個人衛生と健康的な食事も推奨されます。[146]
重症の場合の支持療法には、症状を緩和する治療、輸液療法、酸素補給と腹臥位、および影響を受ける他の重要な臓器をサポートする薬剤または装置が含まれます。[147]より重症の場合は、入院して治療する必要がある場合があります。酸素レベルが低い場合は、死亡率を下げるためにグルココルチコイドデキサメタゾンの使用が推奨されます。[148]呼吸をサポートするために、 非侵襲的換気と、最終的には機械的人工呼吸器のために集中治療室に入院する必要がある場合があります。[149]体外式膜型人工肺(ECMO)は、呼吸不全の問題に対処するために使用されています。[150] [151]
ヒドロキシクロロキン、ロピナビル/リトナビル、イベルメクチンなどの既存の薬剤は、有用な効果があるという十分な証拠がないため、米国や欧州の保健当局によって推奨されていません。[140] [152] [153]抗ウイルス薬レムデシビルは、米国、カナダ、オーストラリア、その他いくつかの国で、さまざまな制限付きで入手可能ですが、機械的人工呼吸器との使用は推奨されておらず、世界保健機関(WHO)によって完全に非推奨となっています。 [154]その有効性に関する証拠が限られているためです。[140]
予後
COVID-19の重症度は様々である。風邪などの他の一般的な上気道疾患に似て、症状がほとんどないか全くない軽症の経過をたどることもある。症例の3~4%(65歳以上では7.4%)では、入院を必要とするほど症状が重い。[155]軽症の場合、通常は2週間以内に回復するが、重症または危篤の場合は回復に3~6週間かかることがある。死亡した人の場合、症状発現から死亡までの期間は2~8週間に及んでいる。入院時のプロトロンビン時間の延長とC反応性タンパク質レベルの上昇は、COVID-19の重症化と集中治療室(ICU)への移送に関連している。[156] [157]
COVID-19患者の5%~50%はロングCOVIDを経験します。[158]これは、病気の典型的な回復期の後も長期的な影響が持続することを特徴とする状態です。 [159] [160]最も一般的に報告されている臨床症状は、疲労感と記憶障害のほか、倦怠感、頭痛、息切れ、嗅覚喪失、筋力低下、微熱、認知機能障害です。[161] [162] [163] [164]
戦略
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多くの国が、行動の変化を推奨、義務付け、または禁止することでCOVID-19の拡散を遅らせたり止めたりしようとしたが、他の国は主に情報提供に頼っていた。対策は、公的な勧告から厳格なロックダウンまで多岐にわたる。アウトブレイク制御戦略は、排除と緩和に分けられる。専門家は、コミュニティ内でのウイルスの拡散を完全に止めることを目的とする排除戦略(「ゼロCOVID」として知られる)[168]と、ウイルスが社会に与える影響を軽減しようとするが、コミュニティ内でのある程度の感染は許容する緩和戦略(一般に「曲線の平坦化」として知られる)を区別している。[ 169]これらの初期戦略は、自然免疫とワクチン誘導免疫による獲得免疫段階で順次または同時に追求することができる。[170]
ネイチャー誌は2021年に、調査に回答した研究者の90%が「コロナウイルスは風土病になるだろうと考えている」と報じた。[171]
封じ込め
封じ込めは、アウトブレイクが一般の人々に広がるのを防ぐために行われます。感染者は感染力がある間は隔離されます。接触した人々は、感染していないか、もはや伝染性がないことを確認するために十分な期間、接触して隔離されます。スクリーニングは封じ込めの出発点です。スクリーニングは症状を確認して感染者を特定することで行われ、その後、隔離または治療を提供できます。[172]ゼロCOVID戦略では、接触者追跡、大量検査、国境検疫、ロックダウン、緩和ソフトウェアなどの公衆衛生対策を使用して、COVID-19が検出されるとすぐにコミュニティでの感染を阻止し、その地域で検出された感染者をゼロに戻し、通常の経済活動と社会活動を再開することを目標としています。[168] [173]封じ込めまたは抑制が成功すると、 Rtが1未満になります。[174]
緩和
封じ込めが失敗した場合、取り組みは緩和に焦点を当てます。緩和とは、感染拡大を遅らせ、医療システムと社会への影響を抑えるための措置です。緩和が成功すると、流行のピークが遅れ、減少します。これは「流行曲線の平坦化」として知られています。[165]これにより、医療サービスが圧倒されるリスクが減り、ワクチンや治療法の開発に多くの時間をかけることができます。[165]多くの管轄区域で個人の行動が変化しました。多くの人が従来の職場ではなく自宅で仕事をしました。[175]
非医薬品介入

感染拡大を抑える可能性のある非医薬品介入としては、マスクの着用、自己隔離、手指衛生などの個人的な行動、職場や学校の閉鎖、大規模な集会の中止など対人接触を減らすことを目的とした地域社会の対策、そのような介入の受け入れと参加を促すための地域社会の関与、表面清掃などの環境対策などが挙げられる。[176]
その他の対策
より抜本的な対策として、全人口の隔離や厳格な渡航禁止などがさまざまな地域で試みられている。[177]中国政府とオーストラリア政府の対策には多くのロックダウンが含まれており、最も厳しいと広く考えられている。ニュージーランド政府の対応には最も厳しい渡航制限が含まれていた。韓国はK-Quarantineプログラムの一環として、大量スクリーニングと地域的な検疫を導入し、感染者の移動に関する警報を発した。シンガポール政府の対応には、いわゆる「サーキットブレーカーロックダウン」と影響を受けた人々への財政支援が含まれ、検疫を破った人々には多額の罰金を課した。[178]
接触者追跡
接触者追跡は、新たに感染した人の最近の接触者を特定し、感染の有無を検査しようとするものである。従来のアプローチは、感染者から接触者リストを要求し、接触者に電話または訪問することである。[179]接触者追跡は、2014年の西アフリカのエボラウイルスの流行時に広く使用された。[180]
もう一つのアプローチは、モバイルデバイスから位置データを収集し、感染者と頻繁に接触した人を特定するというものだが、プライバシーの懸念を引き起こした。[181] 2020年4月10日、GoogleとAppleはプライバシーを保護しながら接触追跡を行う取り組みを発表した。[182] [183] 欧州と米国では、当初、パランティア・テクノロジーズがCOVID-19追跡サービスを提供していた。[184]
健康管理
WHOは、能力の増強と医療の適応を基本的な緩和策と説明した。[185] ECDCとWHOの欧州地域事務局は、病院と一次医療サービスに対して、検査への検査サービスの集中、選択的処置のキャンセル、患者の隔離、人員の訓練と人工呼吸器とベッドの増加による集中治療能力の増強など、複数のレベルでリソースをシフトするためのガイドラインを発行した。 [185] [186]パンデミックは遠隔医療の広範な採用を促進した。[187]
即興製造

サプライチェーンの容量制限により、一部のメーカーは鼻腔スワブや人工呼吸器の部品などの材料を3Dプリントし始めました。 [188] [189]ある例では、イタリアの新興企業が、一晩で100個の人工呼吸器バルブをリバースエンジニアリングして印刷した後、特許侵害の疑いで法的脅迫を受けました。 [190]個人やグループのメーカーがオープンソースの設計を作成して共有し、地元産の材料、縫製、3Dプリントを使用してデバイスを製造しました。何百万ものフェイスシールド、防護ガウン、マスクが作られました。その他の臨時の医療用品には、靴カバー、手術用キャップ、電動空気清浄呼吸器、手指消毒剤などがあります。イヤーセーバー、非侵襲性換気ヘルメット、人工呼吸器スプリッターなどの新しいデバイスが開発されました。 [191]
集団免疫
2021年7月、複数の専門家は、デルタはワクチン接種を受けた個人間で感染する可能性があるため、集団免疫の達成は不可能かもしれないという懸念を表明した。 [192] CDCは、ワクチン接種を受けた人がデルタを感染させる可能性があることを示すデータを公開したが、当局は他の変異株ではその可能性は低いと考えていた。その結果、WHOとCDCは、ワクチン接種を受けた人々に、マスク着用、社会的距離の確保、感染した場合の隔離などの非医薬品介入を継続するよう奨励した。[193]
歴史
2019
武漢での発生は2019年11月に発見されたが、発見前から人から人への感染が起こっていた可能性がある。[37] [38] 2019年12月から遡及的に分析したところ、湖北省の症例数は徐々に増加し、12月20日までに60件、12月31日までに少なくとも266件に達した。[194]
12月26日に肺炎のクラスターが観察され、中国の呼吸器科医である張継先によって治療された。彼女は12月27日に武漢江漢CDCに報告した。[195]肺炎患者のサンプルを分析した後、ビジョンメディカルズという遺伝子配列解析会社が12月28日に中国CDC (CCDC)に新型コロナウイルスの発見を報告した。[196] [197]
12月30日、キャピタルバイオメディカルラボから武漢中央病院に送られた検査報告書にSARS陽性の誤報が報告され、同病院の医師らが当局に通報した。李文亮(1月3日に処罰された)を含む8人の医師は、後に警察から虚偽の噂を流したとして訓戒された。武漢中央病院の救急科長、艾芬も懲戒された。 [198] [199]その夜、武漢市衛生委員会(WMHC)は「原因不明の肺炎の治療」に関する通知を出した。[200]翌日、WMHCは27件の症例を確認したと発表し[201] [202]、調査を開始するには十分な数だった。[203]
12月31日、WHO中国事務所は原因不明の肺炎症例のクラスター発生について通知を受け[204] [201]、直ちに調査を開始した[203] 。
中国当局筋によると、初期の症例のほとんどは、生きた動物も販売していた華南海鮮卸売市場に関連していたという。[205] 2020年5月、CCDCのジョージ・ガオ所長は、そこで採取された動物のサンプルが陰性であったため、当初は市場が感染源の可能性を否定していた。[206]
2020

1月11日、WHOは中国国家衛生委員会から、このアウトブレイクは市場での感染に関連しており、中国は新しいタイプのコロナウイルスを特定し、1月7日に分離したとの通知を受けた。[204]
当初、感染者数は約7日半ごとに倍増した。[207] 1月上旬から中旬にかけて、春節の人口移動も手伝って、ウイルスは中国の他の省に広がった。武漢は交通の要衝であり、主要な鉄道の乗り換え地だった。[208] 1月10日、ウイルスのゲノムが公表された。[209] 3月に発表された回顧的研究によると、1月20日までに6,174人が症状を報告していた。[210] 1月24日の報告書は、ヒトへの感染が起こっている可能性が高いことを示しており、医療従事者には個人用防護具の着用を推奨した。また、この流行の「パンデミックの可能性」を考慮して、検査を推奨した。[211] [212] 1月31日、初めて発表されたモデリング研究は、「世界中の大都市で独立した自己持続的な流行」が避けられないと警告し、「大規模な公衆衛生介入」を求めた。[213]
1月30日には7,818人の感染が確認され、WHOは流行を国際的に懸念される公衆衛生上の緊急事態(PHEIC)と宣言した。[214] [215] [216] 3月11日、WHOは状況がパンデミックと言えるとの評価を発表した。[3]
1月31日までに、イタリアは中国からの観光客2名で初の感染が確認されたことを発表した。[217] 3月19日、イタリアは中国を抜いて死者数最多の国となった。[218] 3月26日には、米国が中国とイタリアを抜いて感染者数最多の国となった。[219]ゲノム解析により、ニューヨークで確認された感染者の大半はアジアから直接来たのではなく、ヨーロッパから来たことが示された。 [220]以前のサンプルの検査により、2019年12月27日にフランスで感染した人物[221] [222]と、2月6日に米国で死亡した人物が判明した 。[223]

10月にWHOは、世界で10人に1人、つまり7億8000万人が感染している可能性があると報告したが、感染が確認されているのは3500万人に過ぎなかった。[224]
11月9日、ファイザーは候補ワクチンの試験結果を発表し、感染予防効果が90%であることを確認した。同日、ノババックスはFDAにワクチンのファストトラック申請を提出した。[225] [226]
12月14日、イングランド公衆衛生局は、英国南東部、主にケントで変異株が発見されたと報告した。後にアルファと名付けられたこの変異株は、スパイクタンパク質に変化が見られ、ウイルスの感染力を高める可能性がある。12月13日現在、英国では1,108人の感染が確認されている。[227] [228]
2020年2月4日、アレックス・アザー米国保健福祉長官は、「故意の不正行為」を除くすべてのケースでワクチン製造業者の責任を放棄した。[229] [230]
2021
1月2日には、英国で最初に発見されたアルファ変異株が33か国で確認された。 [231] 1月6日には、ブラジルから帰国した日本人旅行者からガンマ変異株が初めて確認された。[232] 1月29日には、南アフリカでの臨床試験でノババックスワクチンがベータ変異株に対して49パーセントの有効性を示したと報告された。 [233] [234]ブラジルの臨床試験では、コロナバックスワクチンが50.4パーセントの有効性を示したと報告された。[235]

3月12日、いくつかの国がオックスフォード-アストラゼネカのCOVID-19ワクチンの使用を中止した。これは血液凝固の問題、特に脳静脈洞血栓症(CVST)が原因である。 [236] 3月20日、WHOと欧州医薬品庁は血栓症との関連を発見しなかったため、いくつかの国がワクチン接種を再開した。 [237] 3月にWHOは動物宿主が最も可能性の高い起源であると報告したが、他の可能性も排除しなかった。[2] [36]デルタ変異体はインドで最初に特定された。4月中旬、この変異体は英国で初めて検出され、2か月後には国内で本格的な第3波となり、政府は当初6月に予定されていた経済再開を延期せざるを得なくなった。[238]
11月10日、ドイツは、心筋炎との関連性の可能性があるため、30歳未満の人にはモデルナ社のワクチン接種を控えるよう勧告した。[239] 11月24日、オミクロン変異株が南アフリカで検出され、数日後、世界保健機関はこれをVoC(懸念される変異株)と宣言した。[240]この新しい変異株はデルタ変異株よりも感染力が強い。[241]
2022
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1月1日、ヨーロッパではオミクロン変異株の急増により感染者数が1億人を突破した。[242]その月の後半、WHOは重症または危篤の患者に関節リウマチ薬バリシチニブを推奨した。また、重症ではない患者にはモノクローナル抗体ソトロビマブを推奨したが、入院リスクが最も高い患者に限った。[243]
1月24日、健康指標評価研究所は、世界人口の約57%がCOVID-19に感染していると推定した。[63] [64] 3月6日までに、全世界の死者数は600万人を超えたと報告された。[244] 7月6日までに、オミクロン亜種BA.4とBA.5が世界中に広がった。[245] WHO事務局長テドロス・ゲブレイェソスは2022年9月14日、「パンデミックを終わらせるために、世界はかつてないほど良い状況にある」と述べ、2020年3月以来の最低の週次死亡者数を引用した。彼は続けて、「まだそこには至っていない。しかし、終わりは見えている。ゴールラインは見えている」と述べた。[246] [247] [248] [249]
10月21日、米国の新型コロナウイルス感染者数は9900万人を超え、どの国よりも最多となった。[250] 10月30日までに、世界の1日あたりの死者数は424人で、2020年3月12日に385人の死者が報告されて以来、最低となった。 [251] 11月17日は、中国の保健当局が初めて新型コロナウイルスを検出してから3年目の記念日であった。[252]
11月11日、WHOは2月からの死者数が90パーセント減少したと報告した。テドロス事務局長は、これは「楽観的な理由」だと述べた。[253] 12月3日、WHOは「世界の人口の少なくとも90パーセントが、SARS-CoV-2に対してある程度の免疫を持っている」と示唆した。[254] 12月初旬、中国は最も厳しいロックダウン措置の一部を解除し始めた。その後、中国の保健当局からのデータによると、その月の最初の20日間で2億4800万人、つまり人口の約18パーセントが感染していたことが明らかになった。[255] 12月29日、米国はイタリア、日本、台湾、インドに続き、新たな感染者急増を受けて中国から渡航するすべての人にCOVID-19の陰性検査結果を義務付けた。EUは、BF7オミクロン変異株がすでにヨーロッパ中に広がっているが、優勢にはなっていないとして、同様の措置を拒否した。[256] [257]
2023
2023年1月4日、世界保健機関は、最近の感染者急増の際に中国が共有した情報には入院率などのデータが欠けていると述べた。[258] 1月10日、WHOのヨーロッパ事務所は、中国での最近のウイルスの急増は「差し迫った脅威ではない」と述べた。[259] 1月16日、WHOは中国に対し、「COVID-19の影響をより包括的に理解する」ために、過剰死亡率を監視することを推奨した。[260]
1月30日、最初の宣言から3年目に当たる日に、世界保健機関はCOVID-19が依然として国際的に懸念される公衆衛生上の緊急事態(PHEIC)の基準を満たしていると判断した。[261]
3月19日、WHO事務局長テドロス氏は、COVID-19パンデミックが年末までに公衆衛生上の緊急事態ではなくなると「確信している」と述べた。[262] 5月5日、WHOはCOVID-19を世界的な健康上の緊急事態から格下げしたが、パンデミックとの呼び方はそのままとした。[263] WHOはパンデミックの終息時期について公式な宣言は行っていない。[4] [264]この決定は、テドロス氏が国際保健規則の緊急委員会を招集した後に下されたもので、委員会は死亡者と入院者の減少、ワクチン接種の普及、一般的な免疫レベルにより、緊急事態指定を解除し「長期管理へ移行」する時期が来たと指摘した。[265]テドロス氏はこれに同意し、WHOは分類を「確立され進行中の健康問題」に引き下げた。[265]テドロス事務局長は記者会見で、COVID-19の脅威が減少したことで「ほとんどの国がCOVID-19以前の生活に戻ることができた」と述べた。[266]
9月にWHOは、多くの国がCOVID-19の症例統計を記録しなくなったため分析が妨げられたものの、COVID-19の症例数と入院患者数に「懸念すべき」傾向が見られたと述べた。[267]
2023年11月、ウイルスの変異と感染特性の変化に対応して、WHOは治療ガイドラインを調整しました。その他の変更点としては、レムデシビルとモルヌピラビルは最も重篤な症例にのみ推奨され、デュレミデビルとイベルメクチンは推奨されなくなりました。[268]
回答
各国の反応は、厳格なロックダウンから公共教育キャンペーンまで多岐にわたりました。[269] WHOは、夜間外出禁止令とロックダウンは、再編成、再編成、資源の再調整、医療制度の保護のための短期的な措置であるべきだと勧告しました。 [270] 2020年3月26日現在、世界中で17億人が何らかの形のロックダウン下にあります。[271]これは4月第1週までに39億人に増加し、世界人口の半分以上になりました。[272] [273]
いくつかの国では、ロックダウンなどの制限に反対する抗議活動が起こった。2021年2月の調査では、制限に対する抗議活動はウイルスの拡散を直接的に増加させる可能性が高いことが判明した。[274]
アジア
2021年末時点で、アジアの感染者数のピークは2021年5月に世界全体と同じ時期、同じレベルで到来した。 [275]しかし、累積的には感染者数では世界平均の半分しか経験していない。[276]

中国は封じ込めを選択し、ウイルスの拡散を阻止するために厳格なロックダウンを実施した。[277] [278]中国で配布されたワクチンには、BIBP、WIBP、CoronaVacが含まれていた。[279] 2021年12月11日の報告によると、中国は11億6,200万人の国民、つまり国の総人口の82.5%にCOVID-19のワクチンを接種した。[280]中国のゼロCOVIDの大規模な導入により、この病気の感染の第一波はほぼ封じ込められた。[277] [281] [282]オミクロン変異体による感染の波が続いたとき、中国は2022年にウイルスの拡散防止にゼロCOVID戦略を追求したほぼ唯一の国だった。[283] 11月も新たな感染の波に対抗するためロックダウンが継続された。[284] [285]しかし、中国の各都市では国の厳格な対策をめぐって抗議活動が勃発し、[286] [287]同年12月、国はゼロCOVID政策を緩和した。[288] 2022年12月20日、中国国務院はCOVID-19による死亡者数の定義を呼吸不全のみに狭めたが、これにより保健専門家は政府の死者数に懐疑的になった[289] [290]一方で、ゼロCOVID政策の突然の中止に伴い、病院は患者で溢れかえっていると報告していた。[291]
インドで最初の症例が報告されたのは2020年1月30日だった。インドは2020年3月24日から全国的なロックダウンを命じ、[292] 2020年6月1日から段階的に解除した。報告された症例の約半数がムンバイ、デリー、アーメダバード、チェンナイ、プネ、コルカタの6都市で発生した。[293]ロックダウン後、インド政府は当局が接触者追跡とワクチン配布を管理するのを支援するために、Aarogya Setuと呼ばれる接触追跡アプリを導入した。 [294]インドのワクチン接種プログラムは、国民の90%以上が1回目の接種を受け、さらに65%が2回目の接種を受けており、世界最大かつ最も成功したプログラムであると考えられている。[295] [296] 2021年4月に第2波がインドを襲い、医療サービスに負担がかかった。[297] 2021年10月21日、同国でのワクチン接種回数が10億回を超えたと報告された。[298]

イランでは2020年2月19日、ゴムで最初の感染例が確認された。[300] [301]初期の措置には、コンサートやその他の文化イベントの中止/閉鎖、[302]金曜礼拝、[303]学校や大学のキャンパスの閉鎖などがあった。[304]イランは2020年2月にパンデミックの中心地となった。 [305] [306] 2月28日までに10か国以上が感染の発生源をイランに追跡しており、報告された388件の感染例よりも深刻な感染拡大を示している。[306] [307]イラン国会は、 2020年3月3日に290人の議員のうち23人が陽性と判明した後、閉会した。[308]イランの現職または元政治家や政府高官少なくとも12人が2020年3月17日までに死亡した。[309] 2021年8月までに、パンデミックの第5波がピークを迎え、1日で400人以上が死亡した。[310]
COVID-19は2020年1月20日に韓国で確認された。検査で兵士3人が感染していることが判明し、軍事基地は隔離された。[311]韓国は当時世界最大かつ最も組織的と考えられていたスクリーニングプログラムを導入し、感染者の隔離、接触者の追跡と隔離を行った。 [312]スクリーニング方法には、モバイルアプリを介した新規入国者による自己申告の義務付け、[313]ドライブスルー検査との組み合わせ、[314]検査能力を1日2万人に増やすことが含まれていた。[315]当初は批判もあったが、[316]韓国のプログラムは都市全体を隔離することなく感染拡大を抑制できたとみなされた。[312] [317] [318]
ヨーロッパ

COVID-19パンデミックは、 2020年1月24日にフランスのボルドーで最初の症例が確認されたことでヨーロッパに到達し、その後大陸全体に広がった。2020年3月17日までに、ヨーロッパのすべての国で症例が確認され、[319]バチカン市国を除くすべての国で少なくとも1人の死亡が報告された。イタリアは2020年初頭に大規模な流行を経験した最初のヨーロッパの国であり、国家のロックダウンを導入した世界初の国となった。[320] 2020年3月13日までに、世界保健機関(WHO)はヨーロッパをパンデミックの震源地と宣言し[321] [322] 、WHOが5月22日に南米に追い抜かれたと発表したまでその宣言は続いた。[323] 2020年3月18日までに、ヨーロッパでは2億5000万人以上がロックダウンされていた。[324] COVID-19ワクチンの配備にもかかわらず、ヨーロッパは2021年後半に再びパンデミックの震源地となった。[325] [326]
イタリアでの感染拡大は、2020年1月31日、ローマで中国人観光客2人が新型コロナウイルスに感染していることが確認されたことから始まった。[217]感染者数が急増し、政府は中国との航空便を停止し、非常事態を宣言した。[327] 2020年2月22日、閣僚理事会は感染拡大を封じ込めるための新たな法令を発表し、北イタリアで5万人以上が隔離された。[328] 3月4日、イタリア政府は死者数が100人に達したため、学校や大学の閉鎖を命じた。スポーツは少なくとも1か月間完全に中止された。[329] 3月11日、イタリアのジュゼッペ・コンテ首相はスーパーマーケットと薬局を除くほぼすべての商業活動を閉鎖した。[330] [331] 4月19日、第一波は収束し、7日間の死亡者数は433人に減少した。 [332] 10月13日、イタリア政府は第二波を封じ込めるために再び制限的な規則を発令した。[333] 11月10日、イタリアの確認感染者数が100万人を超えた。[334] 11月23日、ウイルスの第二波により、一部の病院が患者の受け入れを停止したと報じられた。[335]
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ウイルスがスペインに広がったことが最初に確認されたのは2020年1月31日、カナリア諸島のラ・ゴメラ島でドイツ人観光客がSARS-CoV-2の検査で陽性となったときだった。 [336]事後遺伝子解析により、少なくとも15種類のウイルスが輸入され、2月中旬までに市中感染が始まったことが示された。 [337] 3月29日、翌日からすべての非必須労働者は14日間自宅待機するよう命じられると発表された。[338] 7月にはバルセロナ、サラゴサ、マドリードを含む多くの都市で感染者数が再び増加し、一部の制限が再導入されたものの、全国的なロックダウンは行われなかった。[339] [340] [341] [342] 2021年9月までに、スペインは人口のワクチン接種率が最も高い国の一つとなった(完全接種76%、1回目の接種79%)。[343]イタリアは75%で第2位です。[343]
スウェーデンは、ほとんどの他のヨーロッパ諸国とは異なり、ほとんどがオープンなままだった。[344]スウェーデン憲法によれば、スウェーデン公衆衛生局は政治的干渉を防ぐ自治権を持っており、同局はオープンなままでいることを支持した。スウェーデンの戦略は、ロックダウン後にウイルスが再び広がり、同じ結果になるという仮定に基づいて、より長期的な対策に焦点を当てていた。[345] [346] 6月末までに、スウェーデンでは過剰死亡はなくなった。[347]
イギリスの権限委譲により、加盟4か国はそれぞれ独自の対応策を講じた。イングランドの制限は他国よりも短命だった。[348]イギリス政府は2020年3月18日から社会的距離の確保と隔離措置の実施を開始した。[349] [350] 3月16日、ボリス・ジョンソン首相は不要不急の旅行や社会的接触を控えるよう勧告し、在宅勤務を推奨し、パブ、レストラン、劇場などの会場を避けるよう求めた。[351] [352] 3月20日、政府はすべての娯楽施設の閉鎖を命じ、[353]失業を防ぐことを約束した。[354] 3月23日、ジョンソン首相は集会を禁止し、不要不急の旅行や屋外活動を制限した。これまでの措置とは異なり、これらの制限は警察が罰金や集会の解散を通じて強制可能だった。不要不急の事業のほとんどは閉鎖を命じられた。[355] 2020年4月24日、イングランドで有望なワクチンの治験が開始されたと報じられ、政府は研究に5000万ポンド以上を投じると約束した。[356] 2020年4月16日、事前の契約により英国がオックスフォード大学のワクチンに最初にアクセスできると報じられ、治験が成功すれば約3000万回分のワクチンが利用可能になる。[357] 2020年12月2日、英国はファイザーのワクチンを承認した最初の先進国となり、80万回分のワクチンが直ちに使用可能になった。[358] 2022年8月、英国でウイルス感染症の症例が減少したと報じられた。[359]
北米
ウイルスは2020年1月13日に米国に到着した。[360] 3月25日にセントクリストファー・ネイビスで症例が確認されて以降、北米全土で症例が報告され、4月16日にボネール島で症例が確認されて以降、北米全土で症例が報告された。 [361]

Our World in Dataによると、米国では1億343万6829件[5]の確認された症例が報告され、120万360人[5]が死亡しており、これはどの国よりも多く、人口1人あたりの死亡者数では世界第19位となっている。[362] COVID-19は米国史上最悪のパンデミックであり[ 363] 、 2020年には心臓病と癌に次いで米国で3番目に多い死因となった。[364] 2019年から2020年にかけて、米国の平均寿命は ヒスパニック系アメリカ人で3年、 アフリカ系アメリカ人で2.9年、 白人アメリカ人で1.2年減少した。[365]これらの影響は持続しており、2021年の米国でのCOVID-19による死亡者数は2020年を上回った。[366]米国では、2020年12月にCOVID-19ワクチンが緊急使用で利用可能になり、国家ワクチン接種プログラムが始まった。最初のCOVID-19ワクチンは、2021年8月23日に食品医薬品局によって正式に承認された。[367] 2022年11月18日までに、米国での症例は減少したものの、COVID変異株BQ.1/BQ.1.1が国内で優勢となった。[368] [369]
2020年3月、カナダ全土で市中感染が確認されたため、すべての州と準州が非常事態を宣言した。各州と準州は程度の差こそあれ、学校や保育所の閉鎖、集会の禁止、不要不急の事業の閉鎖、入国制限などを実施した。カナダは国境へのアクセスを厳しく制限し、一部の例外を除くすべての国からの渡航者を禁止した。[370]症例はカナダ全土で急増し、特にブリティッシュコロンビア州、アルバータ州、ケベック州、オンタリオ州で急増し、大西洋沿岸4州で形成され、国内の渡航制限地域である大西洋バブルが形成された。[371]ワクチンパスポートはすべての州と2つの準州で導入された。[372] [373] 2022年11月11日の報告によると、カナダの保健当局はインフルエンザの急増を予測し、冬季にはCOVID-19の増加が見込まれていた。[374]
南アメリカ
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The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached South America on 26 February 2020, when Brazil confirmed a case in São Paulo.[375] By 3 April, all countries and territories in South America had recorded at least one case.[376] On 13 May 2020, it was reported that Latin America and the Caribbean had reported over 400,000 cases of COVID-19 infection with 23,091 deaths. On 22 May 2020, citing the rapid increase of infections in Brazil, the World Health Organization WHO declared South America the epicentre of the pandemic.[377][378] As of 16 July 2021, South America had recorded 34,359,631 confirmed cases and 1,047,229 deaths from COVID-19. Due to a shortage of testing and medical facilities, it is believed that the outbreak is far larger than the official numbers show.[379]
The virus was confirmed to have spread to Brazil on 25 February 2020,[380] when a man from São Paulo who had traveled to Italy tested positive for the virus.[381] The disease had spread to every federative unit of Brazil by 21 March. On 19 June 2020, the country reported its one millionth case and nearly 49,000 reported deaths.[382][383] One estimate of under-reporting was 22.62% of total reported COVID-19 mortality in 2020.[384][385][386] As of 29 September 2024, Brazil, with 37,511,921[5] confirmed cases and 702,116[5] deaths, has the third-highest number of confirmed cases and second-highest death toll from COVID-19 in the world, behind only those of the United States and India.[387]
Africa
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The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have spread to Africa on 14 February 2020, with the first confirmed case announced in Egypt.[388][389] The first confirmed case in sub-Saharan Africa was announced in Nigeria at the end of February 2020.[390] Within three months, the virus had spread throughout the continent; Lesotho, the last African sovereign state to have remained free of the virus, reported its first case on 13 May 2020.[391][392] By 26 May, it appeared that most African countries were experiencing community transmission, although testing capacity was limited.[393] Most of the identified imported cases arrived from Europe and the United States rather than from China where the virus originated.[394] Many preventive measures were implemented by different countries in Africa including travel restrictions, flight cancellations, and event cancellations.[395] Despite fears, Africa reported lower death rates than other, more economically developed regions.[396]
In early June 2021, Africa faced a third wave of COVID infections with cases rising in 14 countries.[397] By 4 July the continent recorded more than 251,000 new COVID cases, a 20% increase from the prior week and a 12% increase from the January peak. More than sixteen African countries, including Malawi and Senegal, recorded an uptick in new cases.[398] The World Health Organization labelled it Africa's 'Worst Pandemic Week Ever'.[399] In October 2022, WHO reported that most countries on the African continent will miss the goal of 70 percent vaccination by the end of 2022.[400]
Oceania

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached Oceania on 25 January 2020, with the first confirmed case reported in Melbourne, Australia.[401][402] It has since spread elsewhere in the region.[403][402] Australia and New Zealand were praised for their handling of the pandemic in comparison to other Western nations, with New Zealand and each state in Australia wiping out all community transmission of the virus several times even after re-introduction into the community.[404][405][406]
As a result of the high transmissibility of the Delta variant, however, by August 2021, the Australian states of New South Wales and Victoria had conceded defeat in their eradication efforts.[407] In early October 2021, New Zealand also abandoned its elimination strategy.[408] In November and December, following vaccination efforts, the remaining states of Australia, excluding Western Australia, voluntarily gave up COVID-Zero to open up state and international borders.[409][410][411] The open borders allowed the Omicron variant of COVID-19 to enter quickly, and cases subsequently exceeded 120,000 a day.[412] By early March 2022, with cases exceeding 1,000 a day, Western Australia conceded defeat in its eradication strategy and opened its borders.[413] Despite record cases, Australian jurisdictions slowly removed restrictions such as close contact isolation, mask wearing, and density limits by April 2022.[414]
On 9 September 2022, restrictions were significantly relaxed. The aircraft mask mandate was scrapped nationwide, and daily reporting transitioned to weekly reporting.[415][416][417] On 14 September, COVID-19 disaster payment for isolating persons was extended for mandatory isolation.[418] By 22 September, all states had ended mask mandates on public transport, including in Victoria, where the mandate had lasted for approximately 800 days.[419] On 30 September 2022, all Australian leaders declared the emergency response finished and announced the end of isolation requirements. These changes were due in part to high levels of 'hybrid immunity' and low case numbers.[420]
Antarctica
Due to its remoteness and sparse population, Antarctica was the last continent to have confirmed cases of COVID-19.[421][422][423] The first cases were reported in December 2020, almost a year after the first cases of COVID-19 were detected in China. At least 36 people were infected in the first outbreak in 2020,[424] with several other outbreaks taking place in 2021 and 2022.[425]
United Nations
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNSC) was criticised for its slow response, especially regarding the UN's global ceasefire, which aimed to open up humanitarian access to conflict zones.[426][427] The United Nations Security Council was criticized due to the inadequate manner in which it dealt with the COVID-19 pandemic, namely the poor ability to create international collaboration during this crisis.[428][429]
On 23 March 2020, United Nations Secretary-General António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres appealed for a global ceasefire;[430][431] 172 UN member states and observers signed a non-binding supporting statement in June,[432] and the UN Security Council passed a resolution supporting it in July.[433][434]
On 29 September 2020, Guterres urged the International Monetary Fund to help certain countries via debt relief and also call for countries to increase contributions to develop vaccines.[435]
WHO

The WHO spearheaded initiatives such as the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund to raise money for the pandemic response, the UN COVID-19 Supply Chain Task Force, and the solidarity trial for investigating potential treatment options for the disease. The COVAX program, co-led by the WHO, GAVI, and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), aimed to accelerate the development, manufacture, and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines, and to guarantee fair and equitable access across the world.[436][437]
Restrictions

The pandemic shook the world's economy, with especially severe economic damage in the United States, Europe and Latin America.[438][439] A consensus report by American intelligence agencies in April 2021 concluded, "Efforts to contain and manage the virus have reinforced nationalist trends globally, as some states turned inward to protect their citizens and sometimes cast blame on marginalized groups." COVID-19 inflamed partisanship and polarisation around the world as bitter arguments exploded over how to respond. International trade was disrupted amid the formation of no-entry enclaves.[440]
Travel restrictions
The pandemic led many countries and regions to impose quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions, either for citizens, recent travellers to affected areas,[441] or for all travellers.[442][443] Travel collapsed worldwide, damaging the travel sector. The effectiveness of travel restrictions was questioned as the virus spread across the world.[444] One study found that travel restrictions only modestly affected the initial spread, unless combined with other infection prevention and control measures.[445][446] Researchers concluded that "travel restrictions are most useful in the early and late phase of an epidemic" and "restrictions of travel from Wuhan unfortunately came too late".[447] The European Union rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen free travel zone.[448][449]
Repatriation of foreign citizens

Several countries repatriated their citizens and diplomatic staff from Wuhan and surrounding areas, primarily through charter flights. Canada, the United States, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, France, Argentina, Germany and Thailand were among the first to do so.[450] Brazil and New Zealand evacuated their own nationals and others.[451][452] On 14 March, South Africa repatriated 112 South Africans who tested negative, while four who showed symptoms were left behind.[453] Pakistan declined to evacuate its citizens.[454]
On 15 February, the US announced it would evacuate Americans aboard the Diamond Princess cruise ship,[455] and on 21 February, Canada evacuated 129 Canadians from the ship.[456] In early March, the Indian government began repatriating its citizens from Iran.[457][458] On 20 March, the United States began to withdraw some troops from Iraq.[459]
Impact
Economics

The pandemic and responses to it damaged the global economy. On 27 February 2020, worries about the outbreak crushed US stock indexes, which posted their sharpest falls since 2008.[460]
Tourism collapsed due to travel restrictions, closing of public places including travel attractions, and advice of governments against travel. Airlines cancelled flights, while British regional airline Flybe collapsed.[461] The cruise line industry was hard hit,[462] and train stations and ferry ports closed.[463] International mail stopped or was delayed.[464]
The retail sector faced reductions in store hours or closures.[465] Retailers in Europe and Latin America faced traffic declines of 40 percent. North America and Middle East retailers saw a 50–60 percent drop.[466] Shopping centres faced a 33–43 percent drop in foot traffic in March compared to February. Mall operators around the world coped by increasing sanitation, installing thermal scanners to check the temperature of shoppers, and cancelling events.[467]
Hundreds of millions of jobs were lost,[468][469] including more than 40 million jobs in the US.[470] According to a report by Yelp, about 60% of US businesses that closed will stay shut permanently.[471] The International Labour Organization (ILO) reported that the income generated in the first nine months of 2020 from work across the world dropped by 10.7 percent, or $3.5 trillion.[472]
Supply shortages
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Pandemic fears led to panic buying, emptying groceries of essentials such as food, toilet paper, and bottled water. Panic buying stemmed from perceived threat, perceived scarcity, fear of the unknown, coping behaviour and social psychological factors (e.g. social influence and trust).[473]
Supply shortages were due to disruption to factory and logistic operations; shortages were worsened by supply chain disruptions from factory and port shutdowns, and labour shortages.[474]
Shortages continued as managers underestimated the speed of economic recovery after the initial economic crash. The technology industry, in particular, warned of delays from underestimates of semiconductor demand for vehicles and other products.[475]
According to WHO Secretary-General Tedros Ghebreyesus, demand for personal protective equipment (PPE) rose one hundredfold, pushing prices up twentyfold.[476][477] PPE stocks were exhausted everywhere.[478][479][480]
In September 2021, the World Bank reported that food prices remained generally stable and the supply outlook remained positive. However, the poorest countries witnessed a sharp increase in food prices, reaching the highest level since the pandemic began.[481][482] The Agricultural Commodity Price Index stabilized in the third quarter but remained 17% higher than in January 2021.[483][482]
By contrast, petroleum products were in surplus at the beginning of the pandemic, as demand for gasoline and other products collapsed due to reduced commuting and other trips.[484] The 2021 global energy crisis was driven by a global surge in demand as the world economy recovered. Energy demand was particularly strong in Asia.[485][486]
Arts and cultural heritage
The performing arts and cultural heritage sectors were profoundly affected by the pandemic. Both organisations' and individuals' operations have been impacted globally. By March 2020, across the world and to varying degrees, museums, libraries, performance venues, and other cultural institutions had been indefinitely closed with their exhibitions, events and performances cancelled or postponed.[487] A 2021 UNESCO report estimated ten million job losses worldwide in the culture and creative industries.[488][489] Some services continued through digital platforms,[490][491][492] such as live streaming concerts[493] or web-based arts festivals.[494]
Politics
The pandemic affected political systems, causing suspensions of legislative activities,[495] isolations or deaths of politicians,[496] and rescheduled elections.[497] Although they developed broad support among epidemiologists, NPIs (non-pharmaceutical interventions) were controversial in many countries. Intellectual opposition came primarily from other fields, along with heterodox epidemiologists.[498]
Brazil
The pandemic (and the response of Brazilian politicians to it) led to widespread panic, confusion, and pessimism in Brazil.[499] When questioned regarding record deaths in the country in April 2020, Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro said "So what? I'm sorry. What do you want me to do about it?"[500] Bolsonaro disregarded WHO-recommended mitigation techniques and instead downplayed the risks of the virus, promoted increased economic activity, spread misinformation about the efficacy of masks, vaccines and public health measures, and distributed unproven treatments including hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin.[499] A series of federal health ministers resigned or were dismissed after they refused to implement Bolsonaro's policies.[501]
Disagreements between federal and state governments led to a chaotic and delayed response to the rapid spread of the virus,[502] exacerbated by preexisting social and economic disparities in the country.[499][503] Employment, investment and valuation of the Brazilian real plummeted to record lows.[499][504] Brazil was also heavily affected by the Delta and Omicron variants.[505] At the height of the outbreak in the spring of 2021, 3,000+ Brazilians were dying per day.[506][507] Bolsonaro's loss to Lula da Silva in the 2022 presidential election is widely credited to the former's mishandling of the pandemic.[508][509][510]
China
Multiple provincial-level administrators of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) were dismissed over their handling of quarantine measures. Some commentators claimed this move was intended to protect CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping.[511] The US intelligence community claimed that China intentionally under-reported its COVID-19 caseload.[512] The Chinese government maintained that it acted swiftly and transparently.[513][514] Journalists and activists in China who reported on the pandemic were detained by authorities,[515][516] including Zhang Zhan, who was arrested and tortured.[517][518]
Italy

In early March 2020, the Italian government criticised the EU's lack of solidarity with Italy.[519][520][521] On 22 March 2020, after a phone call with Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte, Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered the Russian army to send military medics, disinfection vehicles, and other medical equipment to Italy.[522][523] In early April, Norway and EU states like Romania and Austria started to offer help by sending medical personnel and disinfectant,[524] and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen offered an official apology to the country.[525]
United States
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Beginning in mid-April 2020, protestors objected to government-imposed business closures and restrictions on personal movement and assembly.[527] Simultaneously, essential workers protested unsafe conditions and low wages by participating in a brief general strike.[528] Some political analysts claimed that the pandemic contributed to President Donald Trump's 2020 defeat.[529][530]
The COVID-19 pandemic in the United States prompted calls for the United States to adopt social policies common in other wealthy countries, including universal health care, universal child care, paid sick leave, and higher levels of funding for public health.[531][532][533] The Kaiser Family Foundation estimated that preventable hospitalizations of unvaccinated Americans in the second half of 2021 cost US$13.8 billion.[534]
There were also protest in regards to vaccine mandates in the United States.[535] In January 2022, the US Supreme Court struck down an OSHA rule that mandated vaccination or a testing regimen for all companies with greater than 100 employees.[536][537]
Other countries
The number of journalists imprisoned or detained increased worldwide; some detentions were related to the pandemic.[538][539] The planned NATO "Defender 2020" military exercise in Germany, Poland and the Baltic states, the largest NATO war exercise since the end of the Cold War, was held on a reduced scale.[540][541]
The Iranian government was heavily affected by the virus, which infected some two dozen parliament members and political figures.[307][542] Iran President Hassan Rouhani wrote a public letter to world leaders asking for help on 14 March 2020, due to a lack of access to international markets.[543] Saudi Arabia, which had launched a military intervention in Yemen in March 2015, declared a ceasefire.[544]
Diplomatic relations between Japan and South Korea worsened.[545] South Korea criticised Japan's "ambiguous and passive quarantine efforts" after Japan announced travellers from South Korea must quarantine for two weeks.[546] South Korean society was initially polarised on President Moon Jae-in's response to the crisis; many Koreans signed petitions calling for Moon's impeachment or praising his response.[316]
Some countries passed emergency legislation. Some commentators expressed concern that it could allow governments to strengthen their grip on power.[547][548] In Hungary, the parliament voted to allow Prime Minister Viktor Orbán to rule by decree indefinitely, suspend parliament and elections, and punish those deemed to have spread false information.[549] In countries such as Egypt,[550] Turkey,[551] and Thailand,[552] opposition activists and government critics were arrested for allegedly spreading fake news.[553] In India, journalists criticising the government's response were arrested or issued warnings by police and authorities.[554]
Food systems
The pandemic disrupted food systems worldwide,[555][556] hitting at a time when hunger and undernourishment were rising- an estimated 690 million people lacked food security in 2019.[557] Food access fell – driven by falling incomes, lost remittances, and disruptions to food production.[558] In some cases, food prices rose.[555][557] The pandemic and its accompanying lockdowns and travel restrictions slowed movement of food aid. According to the WHO, 811 million people were undernourished in 2020, "likely related to the fallout of COVID-19".[559][439]
Education

The pandemic impacted educational systems in many countries. Many governments temporarily closed educational institutions, often replaced by online education. Other countries, such as Sweden, kept their schools open. As of September 2020, approximately 1.077 billion learners were affected due to school closures. School closures impacted students, teachers, and families with far-reaching economic and societal consequences.[560] They shed light on social and economic issues, including student debt, digital learning, food insecurity, and homelessness, as well as access to childcare, health care, housing, internet, and disability services. The impact was more severe for disadvantaged children.[561] The Higher Education Policy Institute reported that around 63% of students claimed worsened mental health as a result of the pandemic.[562]
Health
The pandemic impacted global health for many conditions. Hospital visits fell.[563] Visits for heart attack symptoms declined by 38% in the US and 40% in Spain.[564] The head of cardiology at the University of Arizona said, "My worry is some of these people are dying at home because they're too scared to go to the hospital."[565] People with strokes and appendicitis were less likely to seek treatment.[566][567][565] Medical supply shortages impacted many people.[568] The pandemic impacted mental health,[569][570] increasing anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder, affecting healthcare workers, patients and quarantined individuals.[571][572]
In late 2022, during the first northern hemisphere autumn and winter seasons following the widespread relaxation of global public health measures, North America and Europe experienced a surge in respiratory viruses and coinfections in both adults and children.[573] This formed the beginning of the 2022–2023 pediatric care crisis and what some experts termed a "tripledemic" of seasonal influenza, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and SARS-CoV-2 throughout North America.[574][575] In the United Kingdom, pediatric infections also began to spike beyond pre-pandemic levels, albeit with different illnesses, such as Group A streptococcal infection and resultant scarlet fever.[576][577] As of mid-December 2022, 19 children in the UK had died due to Strep A and the wave of infections had begun to spread into North America and Mainland Europe.[578][579]
The B/Yamagata lineage of influenza B might have become extinct in 2020/2021 due to COVID-19 pandemic measures.[580][581] There have been no naturally occurring cases confirmed since March 2020.[582][583] In 2023, the World Health Organization concluded that protection against the Yamagata lineage was no longer necessary in the seasonal flu vaccine, reducing the number of lineages targeted by the vaccine from four to three.[582][583]
Environment

The pandemic and the reaction to it positively affected the environment and climate as a result of reduced human activity. During the "anthropause", fossil fuel use decreased, resource consumption declined, and waste disposal improved, generating less pollution.[585] Planned air travel and vehicle transportation declined. In China, lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 26% decrease in coal consumption, and a 50% reduction in nitrogen oxides emissions.[585][586][587]
In 2020, a worldwide study on mammalian wildlife responses to human presence during COVID lockdowns found complex patterns of animal behavior. Carnivores were generally less active when humans were around, while herbivores in developed areas were more active. Among other findings, this suggested that herbivores may view humans as a shield against predators, highlighting the importance of location and human presence history in understanding wildlife responses to changes in human activity in a given area.[588]
A wide variety of largely mammalian species, both captive and wild, have been shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, with some encountering a particularly high degree of fatal outcomes.[589] In particular, both farmed and wild mink have developed highly symptomatic and severe COVID-19 infections, with a mortality rate as high as 35–55% according to one study.[590][591] White-tailed deer, on the other hand, have largely avoided severe outcomes but have effectively become natural reservoirs of the virus, with large numbers of free-ranging deer infected throughout the US and Canada, including approximately 80% of Iowa's wild deer herd.[592][593] An August 2023 study appeared to confirm the status of white-tailed deer as a disease reservoir, noting that the viral evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in deer occurs at triple the rate of its evolution in humans and that infection rates remained high, even in areas rarely frequented by humans.[594]
Discrimination and prejudice
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Heightened prejudice, xenophobia, and racism toward people of Chinese and East Asian descent were documented around the world.[596][597] Reports from February 2020, when most confirmed cases were confined to China, cited racist sentiments about Chinese people 'deserving' the virus.[598][599][600] Individuals of Asian descent in Europe and North America reported increasing instances of racially-motivated abuse and assaults as a result of the pandemic.[601][602][603] US President Donald Trump was criticised for referring to SARS-CoV-2 as the "Chinese Virus" and "Kung Flu", terms which were condemned as being racist and xenophobic.[604][605][606]
Age-based discrimination against older adults increased during the pandemic. This was attributed to their perceived vulnerability and subsequent physical and social isolation measures, which, coupled with their reduced social activity, increased dependency on others. Similarly, limited digital literacy left the elderly more vulnerable to isolation, depression, and loneliness.[607]
In a correspondence published in The Lancet in 2021, German epidemiologist Günter Kampf described the harmful effects of "inappropriate stigmatisation of unvaccinated people, who include our patients, colleagues, and other fellow citizens", noting the evidence that vaccinated individuals play a large role in transmission.[608] American bioethicist Arthur Caplan responded to Kampf, writing "Criticising [the unvaccinated] who... wind up in hospitals and morgues in huge numbers, put stress on finite resources, and prolong the pandemic... is not stigmatising, it is deserved moral condemnation."[609]
In January 2022, Amnesty International urged Italy to change their anti-COVID-19 restrictions to avoid discrimination against unvaccinated people, saying that "the government must continue to ensure that the entire population can enjoy its fundamental rights." The restrictions included mandatory vaccination over the age of 50, and mandatory vaccination to use public transport.[610]
Lifestyle changes

The pandemic triggered massive changes in behaviour, from increased Internet commerce to cultural changes in the workplace. Online retailers in the US posted $791.70 billion in sales in 2020, an increase of 32.4% from $598.02 billion the year before.[611] Home delivery orders increased, while indoor restaurant dining shut down due to lockdown orders or low sales.[612][613] Hackers, cybercriminals and scammers took advantage of the changes to launch new online attacks.[614]
Education in some countries temporarily shifted from physical attendance to video conferencing.[615] Massive layoffs shrank the airline, travel, hospitality, and other industries.[616][617] Despite most corporations implementing measures to address COVID-19 in the workplace, a poll from Catalyst found that as many as 68% of employees around the world felt that these policies were only performative and "not genuine".[618]
The pandemic led to a surge in remote work. According to a Gallup poll, only 4% of US employees were fully remote before the pandemic, compared to 43% in May 2020. Among white collar workers, that shift was more pronounced, with 6% increasing to 65% in the same period.[619] That trend continued in later stages of the pandemic, with many workers choosing to remain remote even after workplaces reopened.[620][621] Many Nordic, European, and Asian companies increased their recruitment of international remote workers even as the pandemic waned, partially to save on labor costs.[622][623] This also led to a talent drain in the global south and in remote areas in the global north.[623][624] High cost of living and dense urban areas also lost office real estate value due to remote worker exodus.[625] By May 2023, due to increasing layoffs and concerns over productivity, some white collar workplaces in the US had resorted to performance review penalties and indirect incentives (e.g. donations to charity) to encourage workers to return to the office.[626]
Historiography
A 2021 study noted that the COVID-19 pandemic had increased interest in epidemics and infectious diseases among both historians and the general public. Prior to the pandemic, these topics were usually overlooked by "general" history and only received attention in the history of medicine.[627] Many comparisons were made between the COVID-19 and 1918 influenza pandemics,[628][629] including the development of anti-mask movements,[630][631] the widespread promotion of misinformation[632][633] and the impact of socioeconomic disparities.[634]
Religion

In some areas, religious groups exacerbated the spread of the virus, through large gatherings and the dissemination of misinformation.[635][636][637] Some religious leaders decried what they saw as violations of religious freedom.[638] In other cases, religious identity was a beneficial factor for health, increasing compliance with public health measures and protecting against the negative effects of isolation on mental wellbeing.[639][640][641]
Information dissemination
Some news organizations removed their online paywalls for some or all of their pandemic-related articles and posts.[642] Many scientific publishers provided pandemic-related journal articles to the public free of charge as part of the National Institutes of Health's COVID-19 Public Health Emergency Initiative.[643][644][645] According to one estimate from researchers at the University of Rome, 89.5% of COVID-19-related papers were open access, compared to an average of 48.8% for the ten most deadly human diseases.[646] The share of papers published on preprint servers prior to peer review increased dramatically.[647]
Misinformation
Misinformation and conspiracy theories about the pandemic have been widespread; they travel through mass media, social media and text messaging.[648] In March 2020, WHO declared an "infodemic" of incorrect information.[649] Cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias, are linked to conspiracy beliefs, including COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy.[650]
Culture and society
The COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on popular culture. It was included in the narratives of ongoing pre-pandemic television series and become a central narrative in new ones, with mixed results.[651] Writing for The New York Times about the then-upcoming BBC sitcom Pandemonium on 16 December 2020, David Segal asked, "Are we ready to laugh about Covid-19? Or rather, is there anything amusing, or recognizable in a humorous way, about life during a plague, with all of its indignities and setbacks, not to mention its rituals and rules."[652]
The pandemic had driven some people to seek peaceful escapism in media, while others were drawn towards fictional pandemics (e.g. zombie apocalypses) as an alternate form of escapism.[653] Common themes have included contagion, isolation and loss of control.[654] Many drew comparisons to the fictional film Contagion (2011),[655][656] praising its accuracies while noting some differences,[657] such as the lack of an orderly vaccine rollout.[658][659]
As people turned to music to relieve emotions evoked by the pandemic, Spotify listenership showed that classical, ambient and children's genres grew, while pop, country and dance remained relatively stable.[660][661]
Transition to later phases
A March 2022 review declared a transition to endemic status to be "inevitable".[662] In June 2022, an article in Human Genomics said that the pandemic was still "raging", but that "now is the time to explore the transition from the pandemic to the endemic phase."[663] Another review that month predicted that the virus that causes COVID-19 would become the fifth endemic seasonal coronavirus, alongside four other human coronaviruses.[664]
A February 2023 review of the four common cold coronaviruses concluded that the virus would become seasonal and, like the common cold, cause less severe disease for most people.[665] Another 2023 review stated that the transition to endemic COVID-19 may take years or decades.[666]
On 5 May 2023, the WHO declared that the pandemic was no longer a public health emergency of international concern.[667] This led several media outlets to incorrectly report that this meant the pandemic was "over". The WHO commented to Full Fact that it was unlikely to declare the pandemic over "in the near future" and mentioned cholera, which it considers to have been a pandemic since 1961 (i.e., continuously for the last 63 years).[668] The WHO does not have an official category for pandemics or make declarations of when pandemics start or end.[4][264][669][11]
In June 2023, Hans Kluge, director of the WHO in Europe, commented that "While the international public health emergency may have ended, the pandemic certainly has not". The WHO in Europe launched a transition plan to manage the public health response to COVID-19 in the coming years and prepare for possible future emergencies.[670]
Epidemics and pandemics usually end when the disease becomes endemic, and when the disease becomes "an accepted, manageable part of normal life in a given society."[13] As of March 2024, there was no widely agreed definition of when a disease is or is not a pandemic, though efforts at a formal definition were underway. Experts asked by Time that month noted that COVID-19 continued to circulate and cause disease, but expressed uncertainty as to whether it should still be described as a pandemic.[11]
Long-term effects
Economic
Despite strong economic rebounds following the initial lockdowns in early 2020, towards the latter phases of the pandemic, many countries began to experience long-term economic effects. Several countries saw high inflation rates which had global impacts, particularly in developing countries.[671] Some economic impacts such as supply chain and trade operations were seen as more permanent as the pandemic exposed major weaknesses in these systems.[672]
In Australia, the pandemic caused an increase in occupational burnout in 2022.[673]
During the pandemic, a large percentage of workers in Canada came to prefer working from home, which had an impact on the traditional work model. Some corporations made efforts to force workers to return to work on-site, while some embraced the idea.[674]
Travel
There was a "travel boom" causing air travel to recover at rates faster than anticipated, and the aviation industry became profitable in 2023 for the first time since 2019, before the pandemic.[675] However, economic issues meant some predicted that the boom would begin to slow down.[676] Business travel on airlines was still below pre-pandemic levels and is predicted not to recover.[677]
Health
An increase in excess deaths from underlying causes not related to COVID-19 has been largely blamed on systematic issues causing delays in health care and screening during the pandemic, which has resulted in an increase of non-COVID-19 related deaths.[678]
Immunizations
During the pandemic, millions of children missed out on vaccinations as countries focused efforts on combating COVID-19. Efforts were made to increase vaccination rates among children in low-income countries. These efforts were successful in increasing vaccination rates for some diseases, though the UN noted that post-pandemic measles vaccinations were still falling behind.[679]
Some of the decrease in immunization was driven by an increase in mistrust of public health officials. This was seen in both low-income and high-income countries. Several African countries saw a decline in vaccinations due to misinformation around the pandemic flowing into other areas.[680] Immunization rates have yet to recover in the United States[681] and the United Kingdom.[682]
See also
- Coronavirus diseases
- Emerging infectious disease
- Globalization and disease
- List of epidemics and pandemics
- Memorials for the COVID-19 pandemic
Notes
- ^ Some refer to "fatality rate"; however, "fatality ratio" is more accurate as this is not per unit time.[88]
References
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Further reading
- "Progress report on the coronavirus pandemic". Nature. 584 (7821): 325. August 2020. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02414-1. PMID 32814893.
- Tay MZ, Poh CM, Rénia L, MacAry PA, Ng LF (June 2020). "The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention". Nature Reviews. Immunology. 20 (6): 363–374. doi:10.1038/s41577-020-0311-8. PMC 7187672. PMID 32346093.
- COVID-19 infection prevention and control measures for primary care, including general practitioner practices, dental clinics and pharmacy settings: first update. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) (Report). October 2020.
- Bar-On YM, Flamholz A, Phillips R, Milo R (April 2020). "SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) by the numbers". eLife. 9. arXiv:2003.12886. Bibcode:2020arXiv200312886B. doi:10.7554/eLife.57309. PMC 7224694. PMID 32228860.
- Brüssow H (May 2020). "The Novel Coronavirus - A Snapshot of Current Knowledge". Microbial Biotechnology. 13 (3): 607–612. doi:10.1111/1751-7915.13557. PMC 7111068. PMID 32144890.
- Cascella M, Rajnik M, Aleem A, Dulebohn S, Di Napoli R (2020). "Features, Evaluation, and Treatment of Coronavirus". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32150360.
- Funk CD, Laferrière C, Ardakani A (2020). "A Snapshot of the Global Race for Vaccines Targeting SARS-CoV-2 and the COVID-19 Pandemic". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 11: 937. doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.00937. PMC 7317023. PMID 32636754.
- "Development and Licensure of Vaccines to Prevent COVID-19" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). June 2020.
- Birhane M, Bressler S, Chang G, Clark T, Dorough L, Fischer M, et al. (May 2021). "COVID-19 Vaccine Breakthrough Infections Reported to CDC – United States, January 1 – April 30, 2021". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 70 (21): 792–793. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7021e3. PMC 8158893. PMID 34043615.
- Bieksiene K, Zaveckiene J, Malakauskas K, Vaguliene N, Zemaitis M, Miliauskas S (March 2021). "Post COVID-19 Organizing Pneumonia: The Right Time to Interfere". Medicina. 57 (3): 283. doi:10.3390/medicina57030283. PMC 8003092. PMID 33803690.
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- Aghagoli G, Gallo Marin B, Katchur NJ, Chaves-Sell F, Asaad WF, Murphy SA (June 2021). "Neurological Involvement in COVID-19 and Potential Mechanisms: A Review". Neurocritical Care. 34 (3): 1062–1071. doi:10.1007/s12028-020-01049-4. PMC 7358290. PMID 32661794.
External links
Health agencies
- COVID-19 (Questions & Answers, instructional videos; Facts/MythBusters) by the World Health Organization (WHO)
- COVID-19 by the Government of Canada
- COVID-19 (Q&A) by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
- COVID-19 (Q&A) by the Ministry of Health, Singapore
- COVID-19 (Q&A) by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
- COVID-19 Information for the Workplace by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Data and graphs
- Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) situation reports and map by the World Health Organization (WHO)
- COVID-19 Resource Center, map, and historical data by Johns Hopkins University
- COVID-19 data sets published by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)
- COVID-19 Observer based on Johns Hopkins University data
- COVID-19 Statistics and Research published by Our World in Data
- COVID-19 Tracker from Stat News
- COVID-19 Projections for many countries published by Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation
Medical journals
- Coronavirus (COVID-19) by The New England Journal of Medicine
- Coronavirus (COVID-19) Hub by BMJ Publishing Group
- Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) by JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association
- COVID-19: Novel Coronavirus Outbreak Archived 24 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine by Wiley Publishing
- COVID-19 pandemic (2019–20) Collection by Public Library of Science (PLOS)
- COVID-19 Portfolio, a curated collection of publications and preprints by National Institutes of Health (NIH)
- COVID-19 Research Highlights by Springer Nature
- COVID-19 Resource Centre by The Lancet
- Novel Coronavirus Information Center by Elsevier
