Hemichordates form a sister phylum to the echinoderms. They are solitary worm-shaped organisms rarely seen by humans because of their lifestyle. They include two main groups, the acorn worms and the Pterobranchia. Pterobranchia form a class containing about 30 species of small worm-shaped animals that live in secreted tubes on the ocean floor. Acorn worms form a class containing about 111 species that generally live in U-shaped burrows on the seabed, from the shoreline to a depth of 3000 meters. The worms lie there with the proboscis sticking out of one opening in the burrow, subsisting as deposit feeders or suspension feeders. It is supposed the ancestors of acorn worms used to live in tubes like their relatives, the Pterobranchia, but eventually started to live a safer and more sheltered existence in sediment burrows.[292] Some of these worms may grow to be very long; one particular species may reach a length of 2.5 meters (8feet 2inches), although most acorn worms are much smaller.
Acorn worms are more highly specialized and advanced than other worm-like organisms. They have a circulatory system with a heart that also functions as a kidney. Acorn worms have gill-like structures they use for breathing, similar to the gills of fish. Therefore, acorn worms are sometimes said to be a link between classical invertebrates and vertebrates. Acorn worms continually form new gill slits as they grow in size, and some older individuals have more than a hundred on each side. Each slit consists of a branchial chamber opening to the pharynx through a U-shaped cleft. Cilia push water through the slits, maintaining a constant flow, just as in fish.[293] Some acorn worms also have a postanal tail which may be homologous to the post-anal tail of vertebrates.
The three-section body plan of the acorn worm is no longer present in the vertebrates, except in the anatomy of the frontal neural tube, later developed into a brain divided into three parts. This means some of the original anatomy of the early chordate ancestors is still present in vertebrates even if it is not always visible. One theory is the three-part body originated from an early common ancestor of the deuterostomes, and maybe even from a common bilateral ancestor of both deuterostomes and protostomes. Studies have shown the gene expression in the embryo share three of the same signaling centers that shape the brains of all vertebrates, but instead of taking part in the formation of their neural system,[294] they are controlling the development of the different body regions.[295]
Marine chordates
The lancelet, like all cephalochordates, has a head. Adult lancelets retain the four key features of chordates: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. Water from the mouth enters the pharyngeal slits, which filter out food particles. The filtered water then collects in the atrium and exits through the atriopore.[296]
The chordate phylum has three subphyla, one of which is the vertebrates (see below). The other two subphyla are marine invertebrates: the tunicates (salps and sea squirts) and the cephalochordates (such as lancelets). Invertebrate chordates are close relatives to vertebrates. In particular, there has been discussion about how closely some extinct marine species, such as Pikaiidae, Palaeospondylus, Zhongxiniscus and Vetulicolia, might relate ancestrally to vertebrates.
Invertebrate chordates are close relatives of vertebrates
The lancelet, a small translucent fish-like cephalochordate, is one of the closest living invertebrate relative of the vertebrates.[297][298]
Skeletal structures showing the vertebral column and internal skeleton running from the head to the tail.
Vertebrates (Latin for joints of the spine) are a subphylum of chordates. They are chordates that have a vertebral column (backbone). The vertebral column provides the central support structure for an internal skeleton which gives shape, support, and protection to the body and can provide a means of anchoring fins or limbs to the body. The vertebral column also serves to house and protect the spinal cord that lies within the vertebral column.
Marine vertebrates can be divided into marine fish and marine tetrapods.
Marine fish
Fish typically breathe by extracting oxygen from water through gills and have a skin protected by scales and mucous. They use fins to propel and stabilise themselves in the water, and usually have a two-chambered heart and eyes well adapted to seeing underwater, as well as other sensory systems. Over 33,000 species of fish have been described as of 2017,[300] of which about 20,000 are marine fish.[301]
Jawless fish
The Tully monster, a strange looking extinct animal with eyes like a hammerhead protruding from its back, may be an early jawless fish.
Early fish had no jaws. Most went extinct when they were outcompeted by jawed fish (below), but two groups survived: hagfish and lampreys. Hagfish form a class of about 20 species of eel-shaped, slime-producing marine fish. They are the only known living animals that have a skull but no vertebral column. Lampreys form a superclass containing 38 known extant species of jawless fish.[302] The adult lamprey is characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. Although they are well known for boring into the flesh of other fish to suck their blood,[303] only 18 species of lampreys are actually parasitic.[304] Together hagfish and lampreys are the sister group to vertebrates. Living hagfish remain similar to hagfish from around 300 million years ago.[305] The lampreys are a very ancient lineage of vertebrates, though their exact relationship to hagfishes and jawed vertebrates is still a matter of dispute.[306] Molecular analysis since 1992 has suggested that hagfish are most closely related to lampreys,[307] and so also are vertebrates in a monophyletic sense. Others consider them a sister group of vertebrates in the common taxon of craniata.[308]
The Tully monster is an extinct genus of soft-bodied bilaterians that lived in tropical estuaries about 300 million years ago. Since 2016 there has been controversy over whether this animal was a vertebrate or an invertebrate.[309][310] In 2020 researchers found "strong evidence" that the Tully monster was a vertebrate, and was a jawless fish in the lineage of the lamprey,[311][312] while in 2023 other researchers found 3D fossils scans did not support those conclusions.[313]
Pteraspidomorphi is an extinct class of early jawless fish ancestral to jawed vertebrates. The few characteristics they share with the latter are now considered as primitive for all vertebrates.
Around the start of the Devonian, fish started appearing with a deep remodelling of the vertebrate skull that resulted in a jaw.[314] All vertebrate jaws, including the human jaw, have evolved from these early fish jaws. The appearance of the early vertebrate jaw has been described as "perhaps the most profound and radical evolutionary step in vertebrate history".[315][316] Jaws make it possible to capture, hold, and chew prey. Fish without jaws had more difficulty surviving than fish with jaws, and most jawless fish became extinct during the Triassic period.
Cartilaginous fish
Jawed fish fall into two main groups: fish with bony internal skeletons and fish with cartilaginous internal skeletons. Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, have jaws and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. Megalodon is an extinct species of shark that lived about 28 to 1.5Ma. It may looked much like a stocky version of the great white shark, but was much larger with estimated lengths reaching 20.3 metres (67ft).[317] Found in all oceans[318] it was one of the largest and most powerful predators in vertebrate history,[317] and probably had a profound impact on marine life.[319] The Greenland shark has the longest known lifespan of all vertebrates, about 400 years.[320] Some sharks such as the great white are partially warm blooded and give live birth. The manta ray, largest ray in the world, has been targeted by fisheries and is now vulnerable.[321]
Cartilaginous fishes
Cartilaginous fishes may have evolved from spiny sharks.
Guiyu oneiros, the earliest-known bony fish lived during the Late Silurian 419 million years ago.Lobe fins are bedded into the body by bony stalks. They evolved into the legs of the first tetrapod land vertebrates.Ray fins have spines (rays) which can be erected to stiffen the fin for better control of swimming performance.
Bony fish have jaws and skeletons made of bone rather than cartilage. Bony fish also have hard, bony plates called operculum which help them respire and protect their gills, and they often possess a swim bladder which they use for better control of their buoyancy. Bony fish can be further divided into those with lobe fins and those with ray fins. The approximate dates in the phylogenetic tree are from Near et al., 2012[323] and Zhu et al., 2009.[324]
Lobe fins have the form of fleshy lobes supported by bony stalks which extend from the body.[325]Guiyu oneiros, the earliest-known bony fish, lived during the Late Silurian 419 million years ago. It has the combination of both ray-finned and lobe-finned features, although analysis of the totality of its features place it closer to lobe-finned fish.[324] Lobe fins evolved into the legs of the first tetrapod land vertebrates, so by extension an early ancestor of humans was a lobe-finned fish. Apart from the coelacanths and the lungfishes, lobe-finned fishes are now extinct.
The remaining bony fish have ray fins. These are made of webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines (rays) which can be erected to control the fin stiffness.
The main distinguishing feature of the chondrosteans (sturgeon, paddlefish, bichir and reedfish) is the cartilaginous nature of their skeletons. The ancestors of the chondrosteans are thought to be bony fish, but the characteristic of an ossified skeleton was lost in later evolutionary development, resulting in a lightening of the frame.[326]
Neopterygians (from Greek for new fins) appeared sometime in the Late Permian, before dinosaurs. They were a very successful group of fish, because they could move more rapidly than their ancestors. Their scales and skeletons began to lighten during their evolution, and their jaws became more powerful and efficient.[327]
Teleosts
Teleosts have homocercal tails, where the upper half mirrors the lower half.
About 96% of all modern fish species are teleosts,[328] of which about 14,000 are marine species.[329] Teleosts can be distinguished from other bony fish by their possession of a homocercal tail, a tail where the upper half mirrors the lower half.[330] Another difference lies in their jaw bones – teleosts have modifications in the jaw musculature which make it possible for them to protrude their jaws. This enables them to grab prey and draw it into their mouth.[330] In general, teleosts tend to be quicker and more flexible than more basal bony fishes. Their skeletal structure has evolved towards greater lightness. While teleost bones are well calcified, they are constructed from a scaffolding of struts, rather than the dense cancellous bones of holostean fish.[331]
Teleosts are found in almost all marine habitats.[332] They have enormous diversity, and range in size from adult gobies 8mm long [333] to ocean sunfish weighing over 2,000kg.[334] The following images show something of the diversity in the shape and colour of modern marine teleosts...
Nearly half of all extant vertebrate species are teleosts.[335]
Marine tetrapods
Tiktaalik, an extinct lobe-finned fish, developed limb-like fins that could take it onto land.
A tetrapod (Greek for four feet) is a vertebrate with limbs (feet). Tetrapods evolved from ancient lobe-finned fishes about 400 million years ago during the Devonian Period when their earliest ancestors emerged from the sea and adapted to living on land.[336] This change from a body plan for breathing and navigating in gravity-neutral water to a body plan with mechanisms enabling the animal to breathe in air without dehydrating and move on land is one of the most profound evolutionary changes known.[337][338] Tetrapods can be divided into four classes: amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Marine tetrapods are tetrapods that returned from land back to the sea again. The first returns to the ocean may have occurred as early as the Carboniferous Period[339] whereas other returns occurred as recently as the Cenozoic, as in cetaceans, pinnipeds,[340] and several modern amphibians.[341]Amphibians (from Greek for both kinds of life) live part of their life in water and part on land. They mostly require fresh water to reproduce. A few inhabit brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibians.[342] There have been reports, however, of amphibians invading marine waters, such as a Black Sea invasion by the natural hybrid Pelophylax esculentus reported in 2010.[343]
Reptiles
Reptiles (Late Latin for creeping or crawling) do not have an aquatic larval stage, and in this way are unlike amphibians. Most reptiles are oviparous, although several species of squamates are viviparous, as were some extinct aquatic clades[344] — the fetus develops within the mother, contained in a placenta rather than an eggshell. As amniotes, reptile eggs are surrounded by membranes for protection and transport, which adapt them to reproduction on dry land. Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those of mammals, with some providing initial care for their hatchlings.
Some reptiles are more closely related to birds than other reptiles, and many scientists prefer to make Reptilia a monophyletic group which includes the birds.[345][346][347][348]Extant non-avian reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include sea turtles, sea snakes, terrapins, the marine iguana, and the saltwater crocodile. Currently, of the approximately 12,000 extant reptile species and sub-species, only about 100 of are classed as marine reptiles.[349]
Except for some sea snakes, most extant marine reptiles are oviparous and need to return to land to lay their eggs. Apart from sea turtles, the species usually spend most of their lives on or near land rather than in the ocean. Sea snakes generally prefer shallow waters nearby land, around islands, especially waters that are somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries.[350][351] Unlike land snakes, sea snakes have evolved flattened tails which help them swim.[352]
Marine birds are adapted to life within the marine environment. They are often called seabirds. While marine birds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations. Examples include albatross, penguins, gannets, and auks.
In general, marine birds live longer, breed later and have fewer young than terrestrial birds do, but they invest a great deal of time in their young. Most species nest in colonies, which can vary in size from a few dozen birds to millions. Many species are famous for undertaking long annual migrations, crossing the equator or circumnavigating the Earth in some cases. They feed both at the ocean's surface and below it, and even feed on each other. Marine birds can be highly pelagic, coastal, or in some cases spend a part of the year away from the sea entirely. Some marine birds plummet from heights, plunging through the water leaving vapour-like trails, similar to that of fighter planes.[355]Gannets plunge into the water at up to 100 kilometres per hour (60mph). They have air sacs under their skin in their face and chest which act like bubble-wrap, cushioning the impact with the water.
Mammals (from Latin for breast) are characterised by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young. There are about 130 living and recently extinct marine mammal species such as seals, dolphins, whales, manatees, sea otters and polar bears.[356] They do not represent a distinct taxon or systematic grouping, but are instead unified by their reliance on the marine environment for feeding. Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate water dwellers. Seals and sea-lions are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as mating, breeding and molting. In contrast, both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living. Their diet varies considerably as well: some may eat zooplankton; others may eat fish, squid, shellfish, and sea-grass; and a few may eat other mammals.
In a process of convergent evolution, marine mammals, especially cetaceans such as dolphins and whales, redeveloped their body plan to parallel the streamlined fusiform body plan of pelagic fish. Front legs became flippers and back legs disappeared, a dorsal fin reappeared and the tail morphed into a powerful horizontal fluke. This body plan is an adaptation to being an active predator in a high drag environment. A parallel convergence occurred with the now extinct marine reptile ichthyosaur.[357]
Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic phytoplankton and terrestrial vegetation. Dark red and blue-green indicate regions of high photosynthetic activity in the ocean and on land, respectively.
Primary producers are the autotroph organisms that make their own food instead of eating other organisms. This means primary producers become the starting point in the food chain for heterotroph organisms that do eat other organisms. Some marine primary producers are specialised bacteria and archaea which are chemotrophs, making their own food by gathering around hydrothermal vents and cold seeps and using chemosynthesis. However most marine primary production comes from organisms which use photosynthesis on the carbon dioxide dissolved in the water. This process uses energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide[360]:186–187 into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells.[360]:1242 Marine primary producers are important because they underpin almost all marine animal life by generating most of the oxygen and food that provide other organisms with the chemical energy they need to exist.
The principal marine primary producers are cyanobacteria, algae and marine plants. The oxygen released as a by-product of photosynthesis is needed by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, primary producers are influential in the global carbon and water cycles. They stabilize coastal areas and can provide habitats for marine animals. The term division has been traditionally used instead of phylum when discussing primary producers, but the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants now accepts both terms as equivalents.[361]
Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria from a microbial mat. Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to release oxygen via photosynthesis.
The cyanobacterium genus Prochlorococcus is a major contributor to atmospheric oxygen.
Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to evolve an ability to turn sunlight into chemical energy. They form a phylum (division) of bacteria which range from unicellular to filamentous and include colonial species. They are found almost everywhere on earth: in damp soil, in both freshwater and marine environments, and even on Antarctic rocks.[362] In particular, some species occur as drifting cells floating in the ocean, and as such were amongst the first of the phytoplankton.
The first primary producers that used photosynthesis were oceanic cyanobacteria about 2.3billion years ago.[363][364] The release of molecular oxygen by cyanobacteria as a by-product of photosynthesis induced global changes in the Earth's environment. Because oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at the time, this led to the near-extinction of oxygen-intolerant organisms, a dramatic change which redirected the evolution of the major animal and plant species.[365]
The tiny marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus, discovered in 1986, forms today part of the base of the ocean food chain and accounts for much of the photosynthesis of the open ocean[366] and an estimated 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere.[367] It is possibly the most plentiful genus on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater may contain 100,000 cells or more.[368]
Originally, biologists classified cyanobacteria as algae, and referred to it as "blue-green algae". The more recent view is that cyanobacteria are bacteria, and hence are not even in the same Kingdom as algae. Most authorities today exclude all prokaryotes, and hence cyanobacteria from the definition of algae.[369][370]
Diatoms have a silica shell (frustule) with radial (centric) or bilateral (pennate) symmetry.
Dinoflagellates
Armoured
Unarmoured
Traditionally dinoflagellates have been presented as armoured or unarmoured.
Algae is an informal term for a widespread and diverse group of photosynthetic protists which are not necessarily closely related and are thus polyphyletic. Marine algae can be divided into six groups:
green algae, an informal group containing about 8,000 recognised species.[371] Many species live most of their lives as single cells or are filamentous, while others form colonies made up from long chains of cells, or are highly differentiated macroscopic seaweeds.
diatoms, a (disputed) phylum containing about 100,000 recognised species of mainly unicellular algae. Diatoms generate about 20 percent of the oxygen produced on the planet each year,[145] take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of silicon each year from the waters in which they live,[375] and contribute nearly half of the organic material found in the oceans. The shells (frustules) of dead diatoms can reach as much as half a mile deep on the ocean floor.[376]
dinoflagellates, a phylum of unicellular flagellates with about 2,000 marine species.[377] Many dinoflagellates are known to be photosynthetic, but a large fraction of these are in fact mixotrophic, combining photosynthesis with ingestion of prey (phagotrophy).[378] Some species are endosymbionts of marine animals and play an important part in the biology of coral reefs. Others predate other protozoa, and a few forms are parasitic.
euglenophytes, a phylum of unicellular flagellates with only a few marine members
Unlike higher plants, algae lack roots, stems, or leaves. They can be classified by size as microalgae or macroalgae.
Microalgae are the microscopic types of algae, not visible to the naked eye. They are mostly unicellular species which exist as individuals or in chains or groups, though some are multicellular. Microalgae are important components of the marine protists (discussed above), as well as the phytoplankton (discussed below). They are very diverse. It has been estimated there are 200,000-800,000 species of which about 50,000 species have been described.[379] Depending on the species, their sizes range from a few micrometers (μm) to a few hundred micrometers. They are specially adapted to an environment dominated by viscous forces.
Chlamydomonas globosa, a unicellular green alga with two flagella just visible at bottom left
Macroalgae are the larger, multicellular and more visible types of algae, commonly called seaweeds. Seaweeds usually grow in shallow coastal waters where they are anchored to the seafloor by a holdfast. Seaweed that becomes adrift can wash up on beaches. Kelp is a large brown seaweed that forms large underwater forests covering about 25% of the world coastlines.[381] They are among the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.[382] Some Sargassum seaweeds are planktonic (free-floating). Like microalgae, macroalgae (seaweeds) are technically marine protists since they are not true plants.
The unicellular mermaid's wineglass are mushroom-shaped algae that grow up to 10cm high.
Killer algae are single-celled organisms, but look like ferns and grow stalks up to 80cm long.[384]
Unicellular organisms are usually microscopic, less than one tenth of a millimeter long. There are exceptions. Mermaid's wineglass, a genus of subtropical green algae, is single-celled but remarkably large and complex in form with a single large nucleus, making it a model organism for studying cell biology.[385] Another single celled algae, Caulerpa taxifolia, has the appearance of a vascular plant including "leaves" arranged neatly up stalks like a fern. Selective breeding in aquariums to produce hardier strains resulted in an accidental release into the Mediterranean where it has become an invasive species known colloquially as killer algae.[386]
Origin of plants
Evolution of mangroves and seagrasses
Back in the Silurian, some phytoplankton evolved into red, brown and green algae. These algae then invaded the land and started evolving into the land plants we know today. Later, in the Cretaceous, some of these land plants returned to the sea as marine plants, such as mangroves and seagrasses.[387]
Sea dragons camouflaged to look like floating seaweed live in kelp forests and seagrass meadows.[388]
The total world area of mangrove forests was estimated in 2010 as 134,257 square kilometres (51,837sqmi) (based on satellite data).[389][390] The total world area of seagrass meadows is more difficult to determine, but was conservatively estimated in 2003 as 177,000 square kilometres (68,000sqmi).[391]
Mangroves and seagrasses provide important nursery habitats for marine life, acting as hiding and foraging places for larval and juvenile forms of larger fish and invertebrates.[392]
Plankton and trophic interactions
Plankton are drifting or floating organisms that cannot swim against a current, and include organisms from most areas of life: bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa and animals.
Plankton (from Greek for wanderers) are a diverse group of organisms that live in the water column of large bodies of water but cannot swim against a current. As a result, they wander or drift with the currents.[393] Plankton are defined by their ecological niche, not by any phylogenetic or taxonomic classification. They are a crucial source of food for many marine animals, from forage fish to whales. Plankton can be divided into a plant-like component and an animal component.
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton are the plant-like components of the plankton community ("phyto" comes from the Greek for plant). They are autotrophic (self-feeding), meaning that, like plants, they generate their own food and do not need to consume other organisms.
There are over 100,000 species of diatoms which account for 50% of the ocean's primary production.Red, orange, yellow and green represent areas where algal blooms abound. Blue areas represent nutrient-poor zones where phytoplankton exist in lower concentrations.
Zooplankton are the animal-like component of the planktonic community ("zoo" comes from the Greek for animal). They are heterotrophic (other-feeding), meaning that, like animals, they cannot produce their own food and must consume instead other plants or animals as food. In particular, this means they eat phytoplankton.
Foraminiferans
...can have more than one nucleus
...and defensive spines
Foraminiferans are important unicellular zooplankton protists, with calcium shells.
Turing and radiolarian morphology
Shell of a spherical radiolarian
Shell micrographs
Computer simulations of Turing patterns on a sphere closely replicate some radiolarian shell patterns.[397]
Many marine animals begin life as zooplankton in the form of eggs or larvae, before they develop into adults. These are meroplanktic, that is, they are planktonic for only part of their life.
Mixoplankton are mixotrophic plankton, capable of both photosynthesis and predation. Instead of having a single trophic mode, like phytoplankton and zooplankton, a mixoplankton is capable of both modes, and lies somewhere on a continuum between complete autotrophy at one end to heterotrophy at the other. It is estimated that mixoplankton comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton.[400]
Dinoflagellates are often mixotrophic or live in symbiosis with other organisms. Some dinoflagellates are bioluminescent. At night, ocean water can light up internally and sparkle with blue light because of these dinoflagellates.[401][402] Bioluminescent dinoflagellates possess scintillons, individual cytoplasmic bodies which contain dinoflagellate luciferase, the main enzyme involved in the luminescence. The luminescence, sometimes called the phosphorescence of the sea, occurs as brief (0.1 sec) blue flashes or sparks when individual scintillons are stimulated, usually by mechanical disturbances from, for example, a boat or a swimmer or surf.[403]
Compared to terrestrial environments, marine environments have biomass pyramids which are inverted at the base.[404][405] In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton which tend to have a fast life history (are r-strategists that grow and reproduce rapidly) so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production.[406] In contrast, terrestrial primary producers, such as mature forests, often have a slow life history (are K-strategists that grow and reproduce slowly) so a much larger mass is needed to achieve the same rate of primary production.[407]
Because of this inversion, it is the zooplankton that make up most of the marine animal biomass. As primary consumers, they are the crucial link between the primary producers (mainly (phytoplankton) and the rest of the marine food web (secondary consumers).[408]
If phytoplankton dies before it is eaten, it descends from the euphotic zone down through the pelagicwater column as part of the marine snow, and settles into the depths of sea. In this way, phytoplankton sequester about 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide in the ocean each year, causing the ocean to become a sink of carbon dioxide holding about 90% of all sequestered carbon.[410]
In 2010 researchers found whales carry nutrients from the depths of the ocean back up the pelagic water column to the surface using a process they called the whale pump.[411] Whales feed at deeper levels in the ocean where krill is found, but return regularly to the surface to breathe. There whales defecate a liquid rich in nitrogen and iron. Instead of sinking, the liquid stays at the surface where phytoplankton consume it. In the Gulf of Maine the whale pump provides more nitrogen than the rivers.[412]
Other interactions
Biogeochemical cycles
Marine biogeochemical cycles
The dominant feature of the planet viewed from space is water – oceans of liquid water flood most of the surface while water vapour swirls in atmospheric clouds and the poles are capped with ice.
Taken as a whole, the oceans form a single marine system where water – the "universal solvent" [413] – dissolves nutrients and substances containing elements such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. These substances are endlessly cycled and recycled, chemically combined and then broken down again, dissolved and then precipitated or evaporated, imported from and exported back to the land and the atmosphere and the ocean floor. Powered both by the biological activity of marine organisms and by the natural actions of the sun and tides and movements within the Earth's crust, these are the marine biogeochemical cycles.[414][415]
Sediments at the bottom of the ocean have two main origins, terrigenous and biogenous. Terrigenous sediments account for about 45% of the total marine sediment, and originate in the erosion of rocks on land, transported by rivers and land runoff, windborne dust, volcanoes, or grinding by glaciers.
Biogenous sediments account for the other 55% of the total sediment, and originate in the skeletal remains of marine protists (single-celled plankton and benthos organisms). Much smaller amounts of precipitated minerals and meteoric dust can also be present. Ooze, in the context of a marine sediment, does not refer to the consistency of the sediment but to its biological origin. The term ooze was originally used by John Murray, the "father of modern oceanography", who proposed the term radiolarian ooze for the silica deposits of radiolarian shells brought to the surface during the Challenger Expedition.[417] A biogenic ooze is a pelagic sediment containing at least 30 percent from the skeletal remains of marine organisms.
An elaborate mineral skeleton of a radiolarian made of silica.
Diatoms, major components of marine plankton, also have silica skeletons called frustules.
The drainage basins of the principal oceans and seas of the world are marked by continental divides. The grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the ocean.
Land interactions impact marine life in many ways. Coastlines typically have continental shelves extending some way from the shore. These provide extensive shallows sunlit down to the seafloor, allowing for photosynthesis and enabling habitats for seagrass meadows, coral reefs, kelp forests and other benthic life. Further from shore the continental shelf slopes towards deep water. Wind blowing at the ocean surface or deep ocean currents can result in cold and nutrient rich waters from abyssal depths moving up the continental slopes. This can result in upwellings along the outer edges of continental shelves, providing conditions for phytoplankton blooms.
Water evaporated by the sun from the surface of the ocean can precipitate on land and eventually return to the ocean as runoff or discharge from rivers, enriched with nutrients as well as pollutants. As rivers discharge into estuaries, freshwater mixes with saltwater and becomes brackish. This provides another shallow water habitat where mangrove forests and estuarine fish thrive. Overall, life in inland lakes can evolve with greater diversity than happens in the sea, because freshwater habitats are themselves diverse and compartmentalised in a way marine habitats are not. Some aquatic life, such as salmon and eels, migrate back and forth between freshwater and marine habitats. These migrations can result in exchanges of pathogens and have impacts on the way life evolves in the ocean.
Apparent extinction intensity, i.e. the fraction of genera going extinct at any given time as reconstructed from the fossil record (excluding the current Holocene extinction event)
Biodiversity is the result of over three billion years of evolution. Until approximately 600 million years ago, all life consisted of archaea, bacteria, protozoans and similar single-celled organisms. The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth during the Cambrian explosion – a period during which nearly every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. Over the next 400 million years or so, invertebrate diversity showed little overall trend and vertebrate diversity shows an overall exponential trend.[425]
However, more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species,[426] are estimated to be extinct.[427][428] These extinctions occur at an uneven rate. The dramatic rise in diversity has been marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as mass extinction events.[425] Mass extinction events occur when life undergoes precipitous global declines. Most diversity and biomass on earth is found among the microorganisms, which are difficult to measure. Recorded extinction events are therefore based on the more easily observed changes in the diversity and abundance of larger multicellular organisms, rather than the total diversity and abundance of life.[429] Marine fossils are mostly used to measure extinction rates because of their superior fossil record and stratigraphic range compared to land organisms.
Based on the fossil record, the background rate of extinctions on Earth is about two to five taxonomicfamilies of marine animals every million years. The Great Oxygenation Event was perhaps the first major extinction event. Since the Cambrian explosion five major mass extinctions have significantly exceeded the background extinction rate.[430] The worst was the Permian-Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago. One generally estimates that the Big Five mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years) wiped out more than 40% of marine genera and probably more than 70% of marine species.[431] The current Holocene extinction caused by human activity, and now referred to as the "sixth extinction", may prove ultimately more devastating.
Investigating and exploring marine life
Research and study
In order to perform research and enrich Marine Life knowledge, Scientists use various methods in-order to reach and explore the depths of the ocean. several Hi-tech instruments and vehicles are used for this purpose.[432]
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)- Underwater robots used to explore the ocean. AUVs are independent robots and can explore unmanned. They are released from a ship and are operated from the surface.[433]
Deep-Towed Vehicles (DTVs)- vehicles towed behind research vessels, offering a simpler alternative to more advanced underwater vehicles. They serve as versatile platforms for deploying oceanographic instruments to measure various ocean parameters, with specific models like the DTV BRIDGET used for studying hydrothermal vent plumes by moving near the ocean floor.[434]
Manned Submersibles- an manned underwater vehicle used for exploring, experimenting and is often used by army.[432]
Research vessels (R/Vs)- a boat or ship used to conduct research over a ling period of time. It is capable of transporting a diverse range of sampling and surveying equipment. Research vessels typically feature on-board laboratory space, allowing researchers to promptly analyze the materials collected during cruises.
Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)- unmanned vehicles. able to reach greater depths under water in order to collect a wider variety of information.[432][435]
↑This is the measurement taken by the vessel Kaikō in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the Challenger Deep article for more details.
↑Myxozoa were thought to be an exception, but are now thought to be heavily modified members of the Cnidaria. Jiménez-Guri E, Philippe H, Okamura B, Holland PW (July 2007). "Buddenbrockia is a cnidarian worm". Science. 317 (5834): 116–8. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..116J. doi:10.1126/science.1142024. PMID17615357. S2CID5170702.
↑The earliest Bilateria may have had only a single opening, and no coelom.[239]
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Further reading
Halpern BS, Walbridge S, Selkoe KA, Kappel CV, Micheli F, D'Agrosa C, etal. (February 2008). "A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems". Science. 319 (5865): 948–52. Bibcode:2008Sci...319..948H. doi:10.1126/science.1149345. PMID18276889. S2CID26206024.
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