The issue of an apology is linked to reparations for slavery and is still being pursued by entities across the world. For example, the Jamaican Reparations Movement approved its declaration and action plan. In 2007, British Prime Minister Tony Blair made a formal apology for Great Britain's involvement in slavery.[401]
On February 25, 2007, the Commonwealth of Virginia resolved to 'profoundly regret' and apologize for its role in the institution of slavery. Unique and the first of its kind in the U.S., the apology was unanimously passed in both Houses as Virginia approached the 400th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown.[402]
On August 24, 2007, Mayor of LondonKen Livingstone issued a public apology for London's role in Atlantic slave trade, which took place at an event commemorating the 200th anniversary of the British slave trade's abolition. In his speech, Livingstone described the slave trade as "the racial murder of not just those who were transported but generations of enslaved African men, women and children. To justify this murder and torture black people had to be declared inferior or not human... We live with the consequences today."[403] City officials in Liverpool, which was a large slave trading port, apologized in 1999.[404]
On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws.[405] In June 2009, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution apologizing to African-Americans for the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery". The news was welcomed by President Barack Obama, the nation's first president of African descent.[406] Some of President Obama's ancestors may have been slave owners.[407]
In 2010, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi apologized for Arab involvement in the slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs... They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way."[408]
Reparations
There have been movements to achieve reparations for those formerly held as slaves or for their descendants. Claims for reparations for being held in slavery are handled as a civil law matter in almost every country. This is often decried as a serious problem, since former slaves' relatives lack of money means they often have limited access to a potentially expensive and futile legal process. Mandatory systems of fines and reparations paid to an as yet undetermined group of claimants from fines, paid by unspecified parties, and collected by authorities have been proposed by advocates to alleviate this "civil court problem." Since in almost all cases there are no living ex-slaves or living ex-slave owners these movements have gained little traction. In nearly all cases the judicial system has ruled that the statute of limitations on these possible claims has long since expired.
In June 2023, The Brattle Group presented a report at an event at the University of the West Indies in which reparations were estimated, for harms both during and after the period of transatlantic chattel slavery, at over 100 trillion dollars.[409][410]
Film has been the most influential medium in the presentation of the history of slavery to the general public around the world.[411] The American film industry has had a complex relationship with slavery and until recent decades often avoided the topic. Films such as The Birth of a Nation (1915)[412] and Gone with the Wind (1939) became controversial because they gave a favourable depiction. In 1940 The Santa Fe Trail gave a liberal but ambiguous interpretation of John Brown's attacks on slavery.[413]
The Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s made defiant slaves into heroes.[414] The question of slavery in American memory necessarily involves its depictions in feature films.[415]
Most Hollywood films used American settings, although Spartacus (1960), dealt with an actual revolt in the Roman Empire known as the Third Servile War. The revolt failed, and all the rebels were executed, but their spirit lived on according to the film.[416]Spartacus stays surprisingly close to the historical record.[417]
The Last Supper (La última cena in Spanish) was a 1976 film directed by Cuban Tomás Gutiérrez Alea about the teaching of Christianity to slaves in Cuba, and emphasizes the role of ritual and revolt. Burn! takes place on the imaginary Portuguese island of Queimada (where the locals speak Spanish) and it merges historical events that took place in Brazil, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Jamaica, and elsewhere.
Historians agree that films have largely shaped historical memories, but they debate issues of accuracy, plausibility, moralism, sensationalism, how facts are stretched in search of broader truths, and suitability for the classroom.[418][416] Berlin argues that critics complain if the treatment emphasizes historical brutality, or if it glosses over the harshness to highlight the emotional impact of slavery.[419]
↑Allain, Jean (2012). "The Legal Definition of Slavery into the Twenty-First Century". In Allain, Jean (ed.). The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.199–219. ISBN978-0-19-164535-8.
↑Harper, Kyle (2015). Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275-425. Cambridge University Press. p.11. ISBN9781107640818. Slavery is an economic phenomenon, and a history of slavery must be situated within the economic history of the ancient world.
↑Baker-Kimmons, Leslie C. (2008). "Slavery". In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Vol.3. SAGE Publishing. p.1234. ISBN9781412926942.
↑Pargas, Damian (2023). "Introduction: Historicizing and Spatializing Global Slavery". The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN978-3031132629.
↑Engerman, Stanley; Paquette, Robert; Drescher, Seymour, eds. (2001). Slavery (Oxford Reader) (Reprinteded.). Oxford University Press. p.1. ISBN9780192893024. By the end of the twentieth century, slavery was no longer legally or morally acceptable anywhere in the world. Only two centuries ago, slavery was still among the most ubiquitous institutions in human societies, and had existed in most times and places throughout history.
↑White, Shelley K.; White, Jonathan M.; Korgen, Kathleen Odell (2014). Sociologists in Action on Inequalities: Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality. SAGE Publishing. p.43. ISBN978-1-4833-1147-0.
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↑Variants include σκλαῦος, ἐσκλαβηνός, σκλαυηνός, σκλαβινός, σκλαυινός, σκλαυῖνος, σκλαβοῦνος.
↑Jankowiak, Marek (February 2017). "What Does the Slave Trade in the Saqaliba Tell Us about Early Islamic Slavery?". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 49 (1): 169–172. doi:10.1017/S0020743816001240. ISSN0020-7438.
↑"The international slave trade". Encyclopædia Britannica.
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↑Hanke, Lewis (1974). All Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation Between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda on the Religious and Intellectual Capacity of the American Indians. Northern Illinois University Press. p.xi. ISBN0-87580-043-2."For the first time, and probably for the last, a colonizing nation organized a formal enquiry into the justice of the methods used to extend its empire. For the first time, too, in the modern world, we see an attempt to stigmatize an entire race as inferior, as born slaves according to the theory elaborated centuries before by Aristotle."
↑"Health In Slavery". Archived from the original on October 3, 2006.
↑Panzer, Joel S. (1996). The Popes and Slavery. Alba House. p.3. ISBN0-8189-0764-9."The earlier forms of servitude were varied, complex, and very often of a different sociological category than those which were prevalent after the 14th century. While all forms of servitude are certainly unacceptable to most people today, this has not always been the case. Formerly, the rules of war and society were such that servitude was often imposed as a penalty on criminals and prisoners of war, and was even freely chosen by many workers for economic reasons. Children born of those held in servitude were also at times considered to be in the same state as that of their parents. These types of servitude were the most common among those generally considered to establish the so-called 'just titles' of servitude."
↑Galenson, David W. (March 1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis". The Journal of Economic History. XLIV (1): 1–26. doi:10.1017/S002205070003134X. JSTOR2120553. S2CID154682898.
↑"Slave Laws". Virtual Jamestown. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
↑Billings, Warren M. (2009). The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1700: Easyread Super Large 18pt Edition. ReadHowYouWant.com. pp.286–87. ISBN978-1-4429-6090-9.
↑Federal Writers' Project (1954). Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion. US History Publishers. p.76. ISBN978-1-60354-045-2.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑Childs, Matt D. (2006). 1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle against Atlantic Slavery. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN978-0-8078-5772-4.
↑Ali, Arif (1997). Barbados: Just Beyond Your Imagination. Hansib Publishing (Caribbean) Ltd. pp.46, 48. ISBN978-1-870518-54-3.
↑Streissguth, Tom (2009). Suriname in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. p.23. ISBN978-1-57505-964-8.
↑Mentelle, Simon M. (1777). "Extract of the Dutch Map Representing the Colony of Surinam". wdl.org. Digital World Library via Library of Congress. Archived from the original on May 9, 2020. Retrieved February 7, 2021.
↑"Vergonha Ainda Maior: Novas informações disponíveis em um enorme banco de dados mostram que a escravidão no Brasil foi muito pior do que se sabia antes"[Even Greater Shame: New information available from a huge database shows that slavery in Brazil was far worse than previously known]. Veja (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on March 13, 2015. Retrieved March 16, 2015.
↑"African Heritage and Memories of Slavery in Brazil and the South Atlantic World By Ana Lucia Araujo". cambriapress.com. Archived from the original on March 22, 2023. Retrieved February 7, 2021.
↑Fischer, Brodwyn; Grinberg, Keila (2023), "Slavery and Freedom in Nineteenth-Century Brazil", in Fischer, Brodwyn; Grinberg, Keila (eds.), The Boundaries of Freedom: Slavery, Abolition, and the Making of Modern Brazil, Afro-Latin America, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.1–32, ISBN978-1-009-28797-5, retrieved June 16, 2026
↑Wallech, Steven; Daryaee, Touraj; Hendricks, Craig; Negus, Anne Lynne; Wan, Peter P.; Bakken, Gordon Morris (January 22, 2013). World History: A Concise Thematic Analysis, Volume 2. John Wiley & Sons. p.444. ISBN978-1-118-53273-7.
↑Farmer, Paul (April 15, 2004). "Who removed Aristide?". London Review of Books. pp.28–31. Archived from the original on June 8, 2008. Retrieved February 19, 2010.
↑Kiple, Kenneth F. (2002). The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History. Cambridge University Press. p.145. ISBN978-0-521-52470-4.
↑Wood, Peter (2003). "The Birth of Race-Based Slavery". Slate. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023.
↑Smith, Julia Floyd (1973). Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1860. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. p.44. ISBN978-0-8130-0323-8– via Google Books.
12Moore, Wilbert Ellis (1980). American Negro Slavery and Abolition: A Sociological Study. Ayer Publishing.
↑Clinton, Catherine (1999). Scholastic Encyclopedia of the Civil War. Scholastic Reference. p.8. ISBN978-0-590-37228-2.
↑McInnis, Maurie D. (2011). Slaves Waiting for Sale: Abolitionist Art and the American Slave Trade. University of Chicago Press. p.129. ISBN978-0-226-55933-9.
↑Behrendt, Stephen (1999). "Transatlantic Slave Trade". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN978-0-465-00071-5. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas".
12"Social Aspects of the Civil War". National Park Service. Archived from the original on July 14, 2007.
↑"Why Did So Many Christians Support Slavery?". christianitytoday.com. January 1992. Retrieved August 28, 2017.
↑"1860 Census Results". Archived from the original on June 4, 2004.
↑Lowe, Jaime (July 27, 2021). "What Does California Owe Its Incarcerated Firefighters?". The Atlantic. Retrieved August 29, 2023.
↑Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (December 7, 2017). Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.). BRILL. ISBN978-90-04-34661-1.
↑"Slavery and forced labour in Ancient China and the Ancient Mediterranean". The University of Edinburgh. University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved March 6, 2019.
↑Ober, Josiah; Scheidel, Walter; Shaw, Brent D.; Sanclemente, Donna (April 18, 2007). "Toward Open Access in Ancient Studies: The Princeton-Stanford Working Papers in Classics". Hesperia. 76 (1): 229–242. doi:10.2972/hesp.76.1.229. ISSN0018-098X. S2CID145709968.
↑"Outline of the Senmin system during the Ritsuryo period"(PDF). June 14, 2024.
↑Williams, R. Owen (November 2006). Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition [Two Volumes]. Greenwood Press. ISBN978-0-313-01524-3.
↑Zhao, Gang (1986). Man and Land in Chinese History: An Economic Analysis. Stanford University Press. ISBN978-0-8047-1271-2.
↑Huang, Philip C. (2001). Code, Custom, and Legal Practice in China: The Qing and the Republic Compared. Stanford University Press. ISBN978-0-8047-4111-8.
↑"Kao-li maid-servant". Memoirs of the Research Department of the Tōyō Bunko (2). Tokyo: Tōyō Bunko: 63. 1928. ISSN0082-562X.
↑Schafer, Edward H. (1963). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics. University of California Press. pp.45–46. ISBN978-0-520-05462-2.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑Granet, Marcel (2013) [1930], "The History of Civilization", Chinese Civilization, London: Routledge, pp.500–503, doi:10.4324/9781315005508-24, ISBN978-1-315-00550-8
↑Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p.69. ISBN978-0-295-97644-0. Retrieved November 28, 2010.
↑Brook, Timothy; Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (2000). Opium regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952. University of California Press. p.148. ISBN978-0-520-22236-6. Retrieved November 28, 2010.
123Klein, Martin A. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p.13. ISBN978-0-8108-7528-9.
↑Rhee, Young-hoon; Yang, Donghyu (December 1999). "Korean Nobi in American Mirror: Yi Dynasty Coerced Labor in Comparison to the Slavery in the Antebellum Southern United States". Working Paper Series. Institute of Economic Research, Seoul National University. Archived from the original on November 6, 2018. Retrieved February 14, 2017.
↑Palais, James B. (1998). Views on Korean social history. Institute for Modern Korean Studies, Yonsei University. p.50. ISBN978-89-7141-441-5. Retrieved February 15, 2017. Another target of his critique is the insistence that slaves (nobi) in Korea, especially in Choson dynasty, were closer to serfs (nongno) than true slaves (noye) in Europe and America, enjoying more freedom and independence than what a slave would normally be allowed.
↑Kim, Youngmin; Pettid, Michael J. (2011). Women and Confucianism in Choson Korea: New Perspectives. SUNY Press. p.141. ISBN978-1-4384-3777-4. Retrieved February 14, 2017.
12Kim, Youngmin; Pettid, Michael J. (2011). Women and Confucianism in Choson Korea: New Perspectives. SUNY Press. pp.140–41. ISBN978-1-4384-3777-4. Retrieved February 14, 2017.
↑Korean National Commission for UNESCO (2004). Korean History: Discovery of Its Characteristics and Developments. Hollym. p.14. ISBN978-1-56591-177-2.
↑Hoffman, Michael (May 26, 2013). "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on May 5, 2019. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
↑"Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn't know…". Japan Probe. May 10, 2007. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2018.
↑Hertel, Ralf; Keevak, Michael (2017). Early Encounters between East Asia and Europe: Telling Failures. Routledge. ISBN978-1-317-14718-3.
↑Michael Weiner, ed. (2004). Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern Japan: Imagined and imaginary minorities (illustrateded.). Taylor & Francis. p.408. ISBN978-0-415-20857-4. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
↑Robert Gellately; Ben Kiernan, eds. (2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (reprinted.). Cambridge University Press. p.277. ISBN978-0-521-52750-7. Retrieved February 2, 2014. Hideyoshi korean slaves guns silk.
↑McCormack, Gavan (2001). Reflections on Modern Japanese History in the Context of the Concept of "genocide". Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. Harvard University, Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. p.18.
↑Lidin, Olof G. (2002). Tanegashima – The Arrival of Europe in Japan. Routledge. p.170. ISBN978-1-135-78871-1. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
↑Stanley, Amy (2012). Selling Women: Prostitution, Markets, and the Household in Early Modern Japan. Vol.21 of Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes. Matthew H. Sommer. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-95238-6. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
↑Spence, Jonathan D. (1985). The memory palace of Matteo Ricci (illustrated, reprinted.). Penguin Books. p.208. ISBN978-0-14-008098-8. Retrieved May 5, 2012. countryside.16 Slaves were everywhere in Lisbon, according to the Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti, who was also living in the city during 1578. Black slaves were the most numerous, but there were also a scattering of Chinese
↑Leite, José Roberto Teixeira (1999). A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p.19. ISBN978-85-268-0436-4. Idéias e costumes da China podem ter-nos chegado também através de escravos chineses, de uns poucos dos quais sabe-se da presença no Brasil de começos do Setecentos.17 Mas não deve ter sido através desses raros infelizes que a influência chinesa nos atingiu, mesmo porque escravos chineses (e também japoneses) já existiam aos montes em Lisboa por volta de 1578, quando Filippo Sassetti visitou a cidade,18 apenas suplantados em número pelos africanos. Parece aliás que aos últimos cabia o trabalho pesado, ficando reservadas aos chins tarefas e funções mais amenas, inclusive a de em certos casos secretariar autoridades civis, religiosas e militares.
12Pinto, Jeanette (1992). Slavery in Portuguese India, 1510–1842. Bombay: Himalaya Pub. House. p.18. ISBN978-81-7040-587-0. ing Chinese as slaves, since they are found to be very loyal, intelligent and hard working' ... their culinary bent was also evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Fillippo Sassetti, recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks.
↑Boxer (1968), p.225: "be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting ...".
↑Leite, José Roberto Teixeira (1999). A China No Brasil: Influencias, Marcas, Ecos E Sobrevivencias Chinesas Na Sociedade E Na Arte Brasileiras[China in Brazil: Influences, Marks, Echoes and Chinese Survivals in Brazilian Society and Art] (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p.19. ISBN978-85-268-0436-4.
↑Finkelman, Paul; Miller, Joseph Calder (1998). Macmillan encyclopedia of world slavery. Vol.2. Macmillan Reference US. p.737. ISBN978-0-02-864781-4. OCLC39655102.
↑de Sande (2012); Saunders (1982), p.168; Boxer (1968), p.225: "be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting ...".
↑Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Slavery in Medieval Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 59 (4): 463–492. JSTOR25066328.
↑Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (2013). Religion in Japanese History (illustrated, reprinted.). Columbia University Press. p.144. ISBN978-0-231-51509-2. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
↑Calman, Donald (2013). Nature and Origins of Japanese Imperialism. Routledge. p.37. ISBN978-1-134-91843-0. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
↑Kshetry, Gopal (2008). Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN978-1-4691-0244-3.
↑Moran, J.F. (2012). Japanese and the Jesuits. Routledge. ISBN978-1-134-88112-3. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
↑Dias, Maria Suzette Fernandes (2007). Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p.71. ISBN978-1-84718-111-4.
↑footnote 2: (...) While it is likely that the institution of slavery existed in India during the Vedic period, the association of the Vedic 'Dasa' with 'slaves' is problematic and likely to have been a later development.
↑Levi, Scott C. (November 2002). "Hindus Beyond the Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 12 (3): 277–288. doi:10.1017/S1356186302000329. JSTOR25188289. S2CID155047611. Sources such as the Arthasastra, the Manusmriti and the Mahabharata demonstrate that institutionalized slavery was well established in India by beginning of the common era
↑V.B. Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580–1760 (Princeton, N.J., 1984); G.D. Winius, "The 'Shadow Empire' of Goa in the Bay of Bengal," Itinerario 7, no. 2 (1983); D.G.E. Hall, "Studies in Dutch relations with Arakan," Journal of the Burma Research Society 26, no. 1 (1936):; D.G.E. Hall, "The Daghregister of Batavia and Dutch Trade with Burma in the Seventeenth Century," Journal of the Burma Research Society 29, no. 2 (1939)
↑VOC 1479, OBP 1691, fls. 611r–627v, Specificatie van Allerhande Koopmansz. tot Tuticurin, Manaapar en Alvatt.rij Ingekocht, 1670/71–1689/90; W. Ph. Coolhaas and J.van Goor, eds, Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden van Indiaan Heren Zeventien der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (The Hague, 1960–present), passim; T. Raychaudhuri, Jan Company in Coromandel, 1605–1690: A Study on the Interrelations of European Commerce and Traditional Economies (The Hague, 1962)
↑For exports of Malabar slaves to Ceylon, Batavia, see Generale Missiven VI; H.K. s'Jacob ed., De Nederlanders in Kerala, 1663–1701: De Memories en Instructies Betreffende het Commandement Malabar van de Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publication, Kleine serie 43 (The Hague, 1976); R. Barendse, "Slaving on the Malagasy Coast, 1640–1700," in S. Evers and M. Spindler, eds, Cultures of Madagascar: Ebb and Flow of Influences (Leiden, 1995). See also M.O. Koshy, The Dutch Power in Kerala (New Delhi, 1989); K.K. Kusuman, Slavery in Travancore (Trivandrum, 1973); M.A.P. Meilink-Roelofsz, De Vestiging der Nederlanders ter Kuste Malabar (The Hague, 1943); H. Terpstra, De Opkomst der Westerkwartieren van de Oostindische Compagnie (The Hague, 1918).
↑Of 2,467 slaves traded on 12 slave voyages from Batavia, India, and Madagascar between 1677 and 1701 to the Cape, 1,617 were landed with a loss of 850 slaves, or 34.45%. On 19 voyages between 1677 and 1732, the mortality rate was somewhat lower (22.7%). See Shell, "Slavery at the Cape of Good Hope, 1680–1731," p. 332. Filliot estimated the average mortality rate among slaves shipped from India and West Africa to the Mascarene Islands at 20–25% and 25–30%, respectively. Average mortality rates among slaves arriving from closer catchment areas were lower: 12% from Madagascar and 21% from Southeast Africa. See Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves, p. 228; A. Toussaint, La Route des Îles: Contribution à l'Histoire Maritime des Mascareignes (Paris, 1967); Allen, "The Madagascar Slave Trade and Labor Migration."
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↑Steinert, Johannes-Dieter. Kleine Ostarbeiter: Child Forced Labor in Nazi Germany and German Occupied Eastern Europe. 127th Annual Meeting American Historical Association. ...apart from Jewish forced labourers – workers from Belarus, Ukraine and Russia had to endure the worst working and living conditions. Moreover, German occupation policies in the Soviet Union were far more brutal than in any other country, and German deportation practices the most inhuman.
↑"The Holocaust in Belarus". Facing History and Ourselves. May 12, 2020. Retrieved December 29, 2020. The non-Jewish population was subjected to Nazi terror, too. Hundreds of thousands were deported to Germany as slave laborers, thousands of villages and towns were burned or destroyed, and millions were starved to death as the Germans plundered the entire region. Timothy Snyder estimates that 'half of the population of Soviet Belarus was either killed or forcibly displaced during World War II: nothing of the kind can be said of any other European country.'
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↑Gregory & Lazarev (2003), p.vii: "Much has been written, and much is still to be written, about the Gulag. We all know of its status as an "archipelago" (in Solzhenitsyn's words) of penal slavery, inflicted on millions and held as a threat over the rest of the population."
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