のPink Bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) was devastating[325] to cotton growers here and throughout the southwest.[49] Chu et al., 1996 reports a management program in the Imperial Valley in which government imposed practices successfully reduced populations.[49]
Weeds
Rejmanek & Pitcairn 2002 overview 53 weed eradication campaigns in the state, and find that any infestation smaller than 2.5 acres (1.0ha) was usually successfully eradicated, while anything which had already reached 2,500 acres (1,000ha) was essentially impossible to do.[326]:137
X.fastidiosa was first discovered here by Newton B. Pierce (1856–1916) in 1892.[337][338] It has ever since remained a constant pathogen of many crops here,[339] including grape, almond, citrus, and oleander.[120]
Pierce's Disease
The CDFA's Pierce's Disease Control Program coordinates response and research in the state.[340] Alston et al., 2013 estimates that PD cost the state $92m in 2013[341] and over Tumber et al., 2014 estimates $104m annually in 2014.[258] Burbank estimates the cost to be $100m annually by 2022.[342]
GWSS remains a common vector of PD and as such is a severe drag on the entire continent's wine grape and table grape pricing and supply.[253] In the Napa- and Sonoma- Valleys and other such costal AVAs PD mostly occurs in hotspots adjacent to small water flows.[259] These areas are defined by small streams and ornamental irrigation.[259] These are favorable habitat for the BGSS.[259] Lin et al., 2005 provides SSRs for differentiating between the state's various strains infecting grape and other crops[120] and Lin et al., 2013 for grape-infecting strains here and in Texas.[337]
The BGSS is known to thrive in higher temperatures and PD epidemics are more severe in hotter years, and there is evidence that global warming is increasing BGSS transmission of PD here.[343] Larger data sets are needed for stronger confirmation.[343]
Zhang et al., 2011 compares a PD strain to EB92-1 and finds that they are surprisingly similar.[345] EB92-1 is a biocontrol strain discovered by Hopkins in 1992 and published as Hopkins 2005.[345] It is originally from elderberry (Sambucus spp.) and is highly persistent on grapevine but is asymptomatic.[345] Zhang finds that the EB92-1 genome is a proper subset of the Temecula1 genome, lacking 11 missing genes, 10 of which are predicted to be pathogenicity factors.[345]
Xf is also significant in stonefruit here, causing Almond leaf scorch disease and other diseases.[339][337]Xf isolates CFBP8071 and M23 are common on almond here.[339] Moralejo et al., 2019 shed some light on the European invasion of this pathogen.[339] Their analysis shows these isolates have a 99.4% nucleotide identity with those on grape in the introduced range – and more generally, these isolates, a European cherry infection, and PD isolates from both areas have a high degree of relatedness.[339] Chen et al., 2005 provides PCR primers, Lin et al., 2015 Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs), and Chen et al., 2010 the first genome sequence for common almond-infecting strains here.[337] Lin et al., 2005 provides SSRs for differentiating strains from almond from various other strains.[120] While almond and plum develop leaf scorch, Ledbetter & Rogers 2009 find that peach does not.[337]
Besides Pierce's Disease, the glassy-winged sharpshooter also vectors Xf among stonefruit and so its arrival threatens the world's almond supply.[253]
Xf has many other hosts. Chitalpa tashkentensis is a common landscaping plant here and elsewhere in the southwest that is also a host.[337] Randall et al., 2009 propose the subspecies tashke for these strains but it remains unclear whether this is a distinct subspecies and whether it endures in the overall evolutionary course of Xf strains.[337] Hernandez-Martinez et al., 2007 find the subspecies sandyi causes disease of Oleander, Jacaranda spp., daylily, and magnolia.[337]
Fungicides are used multiple times per seasons and as a result resistance to almost every mode of action[349] is common.[347] Cosseboom et al., 2019 finds the proportion of resistant isolates increased within a single season in conventional but not organic.[347] This shows that evolution is driven by usage in this crop.[347]
Organic strawberry ranches experience very active genetic transfer with conventional strawberry and as a result they have high proportions of resistance.[347] Cosseboom et al., 2019 finds that conventional fields undergo within-season resistance evolution, while organic does not, demonstrating that they are indeed not using the fungicides they claim to not use, and that genetic transfer is not so rapid as to change the situation in a field that quickly.[347]
Ma & Michailides 2005 developed a microsatellite primed PCR (MP-PCR) for genetic diversity in this fungus, especially for populations in this state.[350]Strawberry Botrytis leaf spot was first discovered in 2018 in Santa Maria and reported by Mansouripour & Holmes 2020.[351]Bc was not previously known to produce a leaf spot phenotype in strawberry.[351]
In table grape there is a limit of 0.5% – table grapes can only be shipped if an allotment contains 0.5% or less of Bc-infected berries.[348] Ozone is one treatment option for grape.[348]
Shao et al., 2021 find azoxystrobin resistance is very common in this population.[352] They find it is much more common than in China where azoxystrobin is almost unknown.[352]
B. cinerea is a common cause of postharvest losses in this industry.[353] Due to the need for long shelf life in the California industry – because target markets include the whole continent – and the low moisture growing environments, Petrasch et al., 2021 find genomic selection for strawberry resistance is highly successful.[353] In other environments and markets however this is not expected to be as simple.[353]
Most B. cinereainoculum is introduced via aeroplankton.[354] Significant protection against this is afforded by polytunnels.[354] Daugovish & Larson 2009 find 84%–90% greater yield and 62%–140% greater marketable yield resulting in $14,000–$18,500 per hectare ($5,700–$7,500/acre) greater revenue due to polytunnels.[354]
Though gray mold elsewhere may be caused by both B. cinerea and B. pseudocinerea in California B. pseudocinerea is unknown on strawberry.[355] However it is found on blueberry in the San Joaquin Valley.[355]
Other pathogens of grape
Red Blotch Disease (caused by grapevine red blotch virus, GLRaV-3) costs the state $90 million annually.[341] Losses in Napa County cost over $69,500 per hectare ($28,100/acre) across the likely 25-year lifetime of a vineyard, far higher than the $2,200 per hectare ($890/acre) estimated for eastern Washington.[341]
Leafroll Disease (grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3) is also economically significant.[341]
The seriousness of Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator) has been recognized since at least 1859 in the northern grape district.[358]Newton B. Pierce was working in the area a few decades before his discovery of Pierce's Disease, and over the 1860s he watched U.necator spread to the south.[358]Frederic Bioletti called it the only serious fungal disease the industry suffered from, and so it has remained ever since.[358][359] The first case of U. necatordemethylation inhibitor resistance (DMI resistance) was found in this state in 1980.[360] This was only confirmed with Gubler et al., 1996's reanalysis of 1986 and 1990 samples however.[360] Gubler finds that reduced rates prescribed by IPM are responsible for some of U. necator's triadimefon-, myclobutanil-, and fenarimol resistances.[135][361][360]
Fusarium Wilt of Strawberry (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae) had only been seen once before, in Queensland, in one sample of Winks & Williams in 1966,[362] until appearing again here in 2006 and identified by Koike et al. 2009.[363]As of 2018 it has spread throughout the state.[364] Henry et al., 2017 apply a Japanese PCR-based test of nuclear ribosomal intergenic spacer and elongation factor 1-α.[365] They find such high similarity between the intended – Japanese – target populations and California populations that there are almost no false negatives.[365] There are no false positives on other Fo types (i.e. those not pathogenic on strawberry).[365] Although this suggests both populations have a common origin, that remains to be proven. The matching IGS and EF-1α sequences divide into three somatic compatibility groups.[365] The vast majority fell into what they term SCG1, with a few of SCG2 and SCG3.[365] SCG2 is always a false negative with this test which may indicate the entire group lacks the sequence in question.[365] Although this proves to be a good test, a universally valid test may require finding a sequence specifically pertinent to virulence on the host and not other, incidental sequences.[365]
In early 2012 a previously unknown plant disease (an unidentified Fusarium) and vector (a Euwallacea, preliminarily termed the polyphagous shot hole borer, PSHB) were detected in Los Angeles and Orange Counties.[19] This is especially a disease affecting avocado growers, but also other crops in this state and in its other invasive range, in Israel.[19] In fact although PSHB was noticed on a black locust here in 2003, the associated Fusarium was only detected in 2012 on home avocado trees in LA County.[19] As all Euwallacea in both their native and invasive ranges, this insect prefers to infest hosts in this area in locations which are stressful due to their unnaturalness, such as urban ornamental plantings and orchards.[19]
A. alternata has one of the widest host ranges of any fungal crop pathogen and so fungicides are commonly used.[371] Almost all fruiting production of vulnerable crops must be fungicide-treated.[371] Avenot, along with the Michailides group has found extensive boscalid resistance in a swathe from the center down into the central southern part of the state, especially Kern, Tulare, Fresno, and Madera.[372][371] Although it is also commonly applied in Kings, no resistance is known there.[371]
Black Heart is a common pomegranate disease worldwide. Out of the group of causative species, here Luo et al., 2017 find it is caused by A. alternata and A. arborescens.[46]:192[373] Michailides et al., 2008 finds the 'Wonderful' cultivar can suffer at a rate of 10% or more here.[46]:192[374]:S105
Alternaria Rot of Fig is common here. It is caused by various species of this genus and relatives including: Ulocladium atrum, A. alternata, rarely other Alternaria spp., Dendryphiella vinosa, and Curvularia spp. Epicoccum purpurascens causes Alternaria of breba only.[375] (The first, "breba" crop is not eaten but must be removed because it harbors inoculum of all of these microbes for the second, real crop.)[375]
Stripe Rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici, Pst) is found on Barley, wheat, and various grasses here.[21]:9 Maccaferri et al. 2015 surveys the world's wheat and finds the DavisPst populations are unusually heterogenous.[382] That makes the Davis environment a useful experimental location for differentiating wheat genetic resistance.[382]
Leaf Spot of Caneberry (Mycosphaerella rubi, anamorph Septoria rubi) is common here.[27] It is common on caneberry excluding raspberry, so erect and trailing blackberry, dewberry, olallieberry, and boysenberry.[27] Treatment is simple, almost entirely relying on increased air circulation.[27] No fungicides are registered but any fungicides for §Anthracnose and §Gray mold will work.[27]Copper and lime sulfur work to some degree.[27]
This should be distinguished from Leaf Spot of Raspberry (Sphaerulina rubi, anamorph Cylindrosporium rubi).[27] Although Leaf Spot of Raspberry is found here it is not common in California.[27]
Verticillium Wilts (biovars of Verticillium dahliae) are found here as in any other ecozone. This includes Verticillium Wilt of Strawberry.[385] Unlike every other known Vert Wilt of any other crop, this syndrome sometimes lacks any or any noticeable vascular discoloration of the crown.[386] In strawberry, methyl bromide has historically been vital to prevention, and with phase out, this disease is of increasing concern.[385][387] In all cases some fumigation is necessary, and if fumigation is not possible then solarization and/or rotation are the only remaining options.[385] Although drip fumigation (fumigation inline in the drip tape) is possible it does not produce the same results, especially failing to reach the shoulders of the beds.[385] Nurseries universally use MB or MB + chloropicrin, while growers may use 1,3-D + chloropicrin, chloropicrin alone, metam sodium, or metam potassium.[385] Note that MB+chloropicrin also provides an uncharacterized growth promoter effect in this crop.[387]:180
16SrIII-A is a phytoplasma of apricot here.[395] Uyemoto et al., 1991 found it on apricot in California.[395]
Downy Mildew of Lettuce (Bremia lactucae) is common on lettuce here.[396]:156 The population in the country, and especially in this state, is unusual however: It is highly clonal.[396]:156 As a result, Brown et al., 2004 finds all isolates have the same metalaxyl resistance.[396]:156
Karnal Bunt (Tilletia indica, syn. Neovossia indica) has spread from Asia to this continent, and since 1996 has been found in this country.[399]:592 It is present in areas of this state, and Arizona and Texas.[399]:592
Sudden Oak Death (Phytophthora ramorum) is a widespread disease of oaks here and in Oregon, and is also found in Europe.[118] It was first discovered in the 1990s on the Central Coast[401] and was quickly found in Oregon as well.[402]P. ramorum is of economic concern due to its infestation of Rubus and Vaccinium spp.[402] All isolates here and throughout North America have been of the A2 mating type and genetic analysis suggests that although it was discovered here, the pathogen originated elsewhere.[402]
Phytophthora fragariae is a common disease of strawberry here.[403] Weg 1997 shows that the resistance geneRpf1 is in a gene-for-gene relationship.[403] Mathey 2013 shows that Rpf1 is responsible for most resistance in the Watsonville and Oxnard environments and provides a DNA test to predict performance.[403] No tests are available for Phytophthora fragariae var. fragariae.[390] FPS recommends diagnosis by visual inspection.[390]
Foundation Plant Services[414] (FPS) is a part of UCD's College of Agriculture which serves the horticultural industries. FPS performs several services including testing for diseases (especially viral diseases), identifying varieties of unknown plant samples, and supplying cuttings (vegetative propagation material) from in situ individuals they maintain.[414] They use a library of published Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) known to be relevant to the state's strawberry industry to identify those varieties specifically.[377]California Seed & Plant Lab is an even more active, private molecular lab for the strawberry industry.[377] CS&PL tests for clients here and around the world.[377]
California's experiences with the Vine mealybug, Glassy-winged sharp-shooter, and Pierce's disease have informed the process of creating geographic models for the spread of pests and diseases and their management in viticulture around the world.[415]:43 See §Glassy-winged sharpshooter and §Pierce's Disease.
The University of California is one of the two institutions claiming ownership of the CRISPR/Cas9 patent.[416] This technique has great promise for genetic improvement of agricultural organisms.[416] What ever the outcome of the patent litigation, a license from UC or the Broad Institute or both may be required to produce such products in the future.[416]
Mexican farmworker learning additional skills in Salinas, 2018
Labor
California farms employed at least 850,000 hired farmworkers in 2024. Many of these were seasonal or part time, with the total paid work equivalent to 420,000 full time jobs. The majority were Mexican-born.[417] Some of these farmworkers are not employed here all year but instead travel to other agricultural employment while California is in the off season.[418]
Academic study, Data, and Training
The UC Davis Farm Labor program studies the state's farmworkers and provides information about them.[419]
In addition to advising producers, the Statewide Integrated Pest Management program (UC IPM) began training farmworkers in 1988.[420]:382
The broader implications of intensified immigration enforcement are significant. The U.S. agricultural industry relies heavily on immigrant labor, with undocumented workers comprising a substantial portion of the workforce. In California, estimates suggest that undocumented immigrants make up about 70% of the state's agricultural workers.[434]
Farmers here were solid supporters of candidate and then President Trump, but were quickly surprised by the rhetoric of the administration due to the labor situation in the industry.[436] As late as 2017 the illegal workforce was still projected to grow.[437] A Pew Research Center analysis by Passel & Cohn expected continued lax enforcement to produce a continued population boom, including among California's agricultural workers.[437] During and after the escalated deportation raids the lack of normal labor opened opportunities for others.[438] Many high school students with farmworker family members quit school to join them in the fields.[438]
In April 2024, over 100 farm workers protested for better wages and working conditions, asking for a minimum of US$26/hr. In 2024, farmworkers in Santa Barbara County earned an average hourly wage of ~$17/hr.[443][444]
Immigrant Labor
California's agricultural sector is heavily dependent on immigrant labor, with a significant portion of its workforce lacking legal status. According to the U.S. Department of Labor's National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS), conducted between 2015 and 2019, approximately 49% of hired crop farmworkers in California were unauthorized immigrants.[445] As of 2019, 9% of all unauthorized immigrants in California are employed in this industry.[446]
A 2010 study estimated a total of 165,000 indigenous farmworkers from Mexico and Guatemala and family members in California[447]
Enforcement of labor laws has had little success in improving working conditions.[448] Harrison & Getz 2015 study organic fruit and vegetable workers here and find that working conditions generally improve with increasing farm size.[449] Stockton et al., 2017's meta analysis shows workers were earning two-thirds of the average Californian due to a combination of low wages and underemployment.[450]
Recent immigration enforcement actions have had notable impacts on California's agricultural communities. For instance, a workplace raid in Kern County in February 2025 led to the detention of numerous farmworkers, disrupting local farming operations and instilling fear among immigrant laborers.[451]
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Further reading
Carosso, Vincent P. The California Wine Industry 1830–1895: A Study of the Formative Years (University of California Press, 2021)
External links
California Agricultural Statistics Review 2017-2018 from the California Department of Food and Agriculture
"Home". UC Davis Cost Studies. February 28, 2022. Archived from the original on June 26, 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2022.
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