上海
上海 | |
|---|---|
| 上海市 | |
| 語源:上海浦( Shànghăi pǔ )黄浦江の元の名前 | |
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中国上海市の位置 | |
| 座標 (人民広場): 31°13′43″N 121°28′29″E / 31.22861°N 121.47472°E / 31.22861; 121.47472 | |
| 国 | 中国 |
| 地域 | 東中国 |
青龍鎮の設立 | 746 [1] |
| - 華亭県 | 751 [2] |
| -上海県 | 1292 [3] |
| - 自治体 | 1927年7月7日 |
| 市庁所在地 | 黄埔区 |
| 区分 -郡レベル -町 レベル |
|
| 政府 | |
| • タイプ | 自治体 |
| • 体 | 上海市人民代表大会 |
| • 党書記 | 陳 済寧 |
| • 議会議長 | 黄立新 |
| • 市長 | ゴン・ジェン |
| • 市政協同組合会議委員長 | 胡文栄 |
| • 全国人民代表大会代表 | 57人の議員 |
| エリア [4] [5] [6] | |
| • 自治体 | 6,341 km 2 (2,448 平方マイル) |
| • 水 | 653 km 2 (252 平方マイル) |
| • メトロ | 14,922.7 km 2 (5,761.7 平方マイル) |
| 標高 [7] | 4メートル(13フィート) |
| 最高標高 (佘山) | 118メートル(387フィート) |
| 人口 (2023年)[8] | |
| • 自治体 | 24,874,500 |
| • ランク | 中国で1位 |
| • 密度 | 3,900/km 2 (10,000/平方マイル) |
| 異名 | 上海語 |
| GDP(名目)(2023年)[9] | |
| • 自治体 | 4兆7,220億元(10位)
6,700億 米ドル |
| • 一人当たり | 190,270 元 ( 2 位)
27,001 米ドル |
| タイムゾーン | UTC+08:00 (中部標準時) |
| • 夏 ( DST ) | UTC+09:00 ( CDT ) |
| 郵便番号 | 2000 00– 2021 00 |
| 市外局番 | 21 |
| ISO 3166 コード | CN-SH |
| - 成長 | |
| HDI(2022) | 0.895 [10] ( 2位) –非常に高い |
| ナンバープレートのプレフィックス |
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| 略語 | SH /沪( Hù ) |
| 市の花 | ユランモクレン |
| 言語 | |
| Webサイト |
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上海[a]は直轄市であり、中国で最も人口の多い都市圏である。この都市は長江の南の河口の中国沿岸に位置し、黄浦江が市内を流れている。
市街地の人口は世界で3番目に多く、2023年には約2,487万人に達する見込みである。一方、市街地の人口は中国で最も多く、2,987万人に達する。2022年現在、上海大都市圏の都市部総生産(名目値)は約13兆人民元(1.9兆ドル)に達すると推定されている。[13]上海は、金融、ビジネス、経済、研究、科学技術、製造、運輸、観光、文化の世界有数の中心地である。上海港は、世界で最も忙しいコンテナ港である。[14]
もともと漁村と市場の町であった上海は、国内外の貿易と港湾の好立地により、19世紀に重要性を増した。上海は第一次アヘン戦争後にヨーロッパとの貿易に開放された5つの条約港のうちの1つであり、この戦争で香港はイギリスに割譲されたが、 1997年7月1日に中国に返還された。この事件は、1841年の第二次春埤の戦いに続くもので、ポルトガル植民地マカオの東60キロ以上離れた場所で起きた。マカオは、1554年のポルトガル・清協定に続いて、 1999年12月20日の千年王国返還までポルトガルの支配下にあった。その後、上海租界とフランス租界が設立された。その後、上海は繁栄し、1930年代にはアジアの主要な商業・金融の中心地となった。日中戦争中、この都市は上海の主要な戦闘の現場となった。戦後、すぐに国民党(KMT)と中国共産党(CCP)の間で国共内戦が再開され、最終的に後者が香港と中国本土の大部分を制圧した。1950年代から1970年代にかけて、貿易は主に東側諸国の他の社会主義国に限定され、冷戦の間、香港の世界的な影響力は低下した。
1980年代に最高指導者であった鄧小平によって開始された経済改革により、1990年代までに特に浦東新区を中心に都市の再開発と再活性化が進み、金融と外国投資の復活につながったとき、上海の運命は大きく変わりました。上海はそれ以来、国際貿易と金融の中心地として再び浮上しました。時価総額でアジア太平洋地域最大の証券取引所である上海証券取引所と、中国本土初の自由貿易区である上海自由貿易区の本拠地です。上海は、グローバリゼーションと世界都市研究ネットワークによってアルファ+(世界一流)都市に分類されています。2024年現在、フォーチュン・グローバル500社のうち13社が上海に拠点を置いており、世界金融センター指数で第4位にランクされています。上海は世界的な研究開発の中心地でもあり、復旦大学や上海交通大学など数多くのダブルファーストクラスの大学が集まっています。 1993年に開通した上海地下鉄は、路線の長さで世界 最大の地下鉄網です。
上海は中国経済の「見本市」と評されてきました。アールデコや石庫門など、さまざまな建築様式が特徴のこの都市は、陸家嘴のスカイライン、博物館、城隍廟、豫園、中国館、外灘沿いの建物などの歴史的建造物で有名です。外灘からは東方明珠塔が見えます。上海は料理、現地の言語、国際的な文化でも知られ、超高層ビルが最も多い都市のリストで6位にランクされ、世界最大の経済の中心地の1つです。
語源
| 上海 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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常用漢字「上海」 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 中国語 | 上海 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 漢語ピンイン | 上海 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ウー | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 郵便 | 上海 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 文字通りの意味 | 「海の上」 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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市名の漢字2文字は上(shàng / zaon、「上に」)と海(hǎi / hé、「海」)で、合わせて「海の上」を意味する。この名前が最初に登場したのは11世紀の宋代で、当時すでにこの地に川の合流点とこの名前の町があった。また、この都市は2150年前の歴史記録に登場し、古代の名前「胡」はかつて漁村であったことを示唆していると主張する人もいる。1280年に「上海」に改名されたが、これは「海の上」と訳される。[15]この名前をどのように理解すべきかは議論されてきたが、中国の歴史家は、唐代には現在の上海の地域は海面下にあったため、文字通り「海の上」にあったと結論付けている。[16]
上海は中国語で正式には沪[b] ( Hù / wu )と略されるが、これは沪渎[c] ( Hù Dú / wu-doq、「銛溝」) の短縮形である。これは4世紀または5世紀の金が蘇州江の河口を海への主要な水路として使ったときの名称である。[19]この文字は今日、市内で発行されるすべての自動車のナンバープレートに表示されている。[20]
別名
申( Shēn / sén )または申城( Shēnchéng / sén-zen、「申城」)は、紀元前3世紀の楚の国の貴族で宰相であった春申公に由来する初期の名称であり、その領地には現代の上海も含まれていた。[19]上海を拠点とするスポーツチームや新聞は、上海申花や申宝のように、チーム名に「申」をよく使用している。
華亭[d] ( Huátíng / gho-din ) は上海のもう一つの古い呼び名である。唐代中期の751年、呉郡知事の趙居真によって現在の松江に華亭県が設立された。これは現在の上海における最初の県レベルの行政機関である。市内で最初の五つ星ホテルは華亭にちなんで名付けられた。[21]
魔都( Módū / mó-tu、「怪物/悪魔/魔法の都市」)は、上海の現代的な愛称で、若者の間で広く知られています。[22]この名前は、日本の小説家村松昭風の1924年の小説『魔都』で初めて登場し、上海を光と闇が共存する二分的な都市として描いています。[23]
この都市は英語で様々な愛称で呼ばれており、国際的な大都市であり金融の中心地であることから「中国のニューヨーク」 [24]、「東洋の真珠」、「東洋のパリ」 [ 25]などと呼ばれている。 [26]これはベトナムのホーチミン市(サイゴンとしても知られる)と似ており、ベトナムの歴史的なフランスの地位から「東洋のパリ」という愛称も付けられている。[27]
歴史
古代
現代の上海の西部には、6,000年前に人が住んでいた。 [28]春秋時代(紀元前771年から476年頃)、上海は呉王国に属し、呉王国は越王国に征服され、越王国は楚王国に征服された。[29]戦国時代(紀元前475年)、上海は戦国四君主の一人である楚の春申公の領地の一部であった。彼は黄浦江の開削を命じた。その旧名または詩名である春申河から、上海は「深」というニックネームを得た。[29]当時、上海地域に住む漁師は、湖と呼ばれる魚を捕まえる道具を作り、それが旧市街の北にある蘇州江の出口にその名前を与え、上海の一般的なニックネームや略称となった。[30]
帝国時代
唐、宋、元
唐代と宋代には、現在の青浦区にある青龍镇[f]は主要な貿易港であった。唐の天宝5年(746年)に設立され、13の寺院と7つの塔を有する、歴史的に「東南の巨城」と呼ばれる場所に発展した。宋代の学者で芸術家の米芙が市長を務めた。この港は、揚子江沿いの諸省や中国沿岸部、さらには日本や新羅などの外国との貿易が盛んであった。[1]宋代の終わりまでに、貿易の中心は呉淞江の下流の上海に移った。[31] 1074年に村から市場町に昇格し、1172年には海岸線の安定化を図るために、以前の堤防に加えて2つ目の防波堤が建設された。[32] 1292年の元朝から1927年に上海が正式に市となるまで、上海中心部は現在の松江区に置かれた松江府の管轄下の県として統治されていました。[33]
明王朝

明朝の上海の発展を促した重要な出来事が2つあった。 1554年、倭寇の襲撃から町を守るために初めて城壁が築かれた。高さ10メートル(33フィート)、周囲5キロメートル(3マイル)であった。[34]万暦の治世中の1602年に城隍廟が建てられた。この栄誉は通常、県庁所在地にのみ与えられるもので、上海のような単なる郡庁所在地に与えられることはなかった。学者たちは、これはおそらく政治的地位の低さではなく、町の経済的重要性を反映しているのではないかと推測している。[34]
清朝
清朝時代、上海は2つの重要な中央政府の政策変更の結果として、揚子江デルタ地域で最も重要な海港の一つとなった。1684年、康熙帝は1525年以来施行されていた明朝の外洋船舶禁止令を撤回した。1732年、乾隆帝は江蘇省の税関 ([g] 上海税関を参照) を県都の松江から上海に移し、江蘇省の対外貿易に対する税関徴収の独占的管理権を与えた。これら2つの重要な決定の結果、上海は1735年までに、依然として政治階層の最下層行政レベルであったにもかかわらず、揚子江下流地域全体の主要な貿易港となった。[35]

19世紀には、ヨーロッパと揚子江の経済と貿易の可能性の認識により、上海への国際的な注目が高まった。第一次アヘン戦争(1839-1842年)の間、イギリス軍が市を占領した。[36]この戦争は1842年に南京条約で終わり、上海は国際貿易のための5つの条約港の1つとして開かれた。 [37]ボグ条約、王家条約、黄埔条約(それぞれ1843、1844、1844年に調印)により、中国は中国領土への訪問と貿易に対するヨーロッパとアメリカの要望に屈した。イギリス、フランス、米国はすべて、中国人の直接統治下にあった城壁都市上海の外に拠点を確立した。[38]
1853年、中国人が支配していた上海旧市街は小刀会の反乱軍に陥落したが、1855年2月に清政府が奪還した。 [39] 1854年、外国人居留地を管理するために上海市議会が設立された。1860年から1862年にかけて、太平天国の反乱軍は 2度上海を攻撃し、市の東部と南部の郊外を破壊したが、市を占領することはできなかった。[40] 1863年、蘇州河の南側(黄浦区北部)のイギリス人居留地と北側(虹口区南部)のアメリカ人居留地が合流し、上海国際租界を形成した。フランス人は上海市議会から脱退し、市の南部と南西部に独自の租界を維持した。 [41]

日清戦争は1895年の下関条約で終結し、日本は上海におけるもう一つの外国勢力となった。日本は上海に最初の工場を建設し、すぐに他の外国勢力もそれを模倣した。こうした国際的な活動により、上海は「中国の偉大なアテネ」というニックネームを得た。 [42]
共和国時代
1912年に中華民国が成立した。同年、旧市街の城壁は都市の拡張を阻むものとして撤去された。[43] 1921年7月、上海フランス租界で中国共産党が設立された。[38] 1925年5月30日、日本人経営の紡績工場の労働者が日本人工場長に射殺されるという事件が起き、五・三十運動が勃発した。 [44]その後、市内の労働者は帝国主義に反対するゼネストを開始し、それが全国的な抗議運動となって中国ナショナリズムを生み出した。[45]
上海の黄金時代は、1927年7月7日に江蘇省から分離され、直轄市に昇格したことから始まった。 [38] [46]この新しい中国の直轄市は、現在の宝山、楊浦、閘北、南市、浦東の各地区を含む494.69 km 2 (191.0 平方マイル)の面積をカバーしていたが、外国租界地域は除外されていた。[46]中国人の市長と市議会が主導した新市政府の最初の仕事である「大上海計画」は、外国租界の境界外にある楊浦区江湾鎮に新しい都市の中心を作ることだった。計画には公立博物館、図書館、スポーツスタジアム、市庁舎が含まれていたが、日本軍の侵攻によって中断される前に部分的に建設された。[47] 1920年代には、上海で士大劇が新しい娯楽の形となり、人気を博した。[48]
上海は繁栄し、1930年代にはアジア太平洋地域の主要な商業・金融の中心地となった。 [49]その後の数十年間、多くの国やあらゆる大陸の人々が上海に住み、働くようになった。長期間滞在した人々、なかには数世代にわたって滞在した人々は、自らを「上海人」と呼んだ。[50] 1920年代から1930年代にかけて、ほぼ2万人の白系ロシア人が新たに成立したソ連から逃れて上海に移住した。[51]これらの上海ロシア人は、 2番目に大きな外国人コミュニティを構成していた。1932年までに、上海は世界で5番目に大きな都市となり、7万人の外国人が住んでいた。[52] 1930年代には、ヨーロッパから約3万人のユダヤ人難民が上海にやって来た。[53]
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2021年9月の上海浦東の夜のスカイライン
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上海、1937年に撮影
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上海パークホテルは数十年間アジアで最も高い建物でした。
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1923年に建てられたHSBCビルと1927年に建てられた税関ビル
日本軍の侵攻

1932年1月28日、日本軍は中国側の抵抗を受けながら上海に侵攻した。1万軒以上の商店と数百の工場や公共施設[54]が破壊され、閘北地区は廃墟となった。約1万8千人の民間人が死亡、負傷、行方不明となった。[38] 5月5日に停戦が成立した。[55] 1937年、上海の戦いの結果、上海の国際租界とフランス租界以外の中国統治地域が占領された。占領下の都市に残った人々は、飢え、抑圧、死に日々苦しんだ。[56]最終的に、外国租界は1941年12月8日に日本軍に占領され、1945年の日本の降伏まで占領が続いた。その間、複数の戦争犯罪が行われた。 [57]
日本軍の上海侵攻の副作用は上海ゲットーであった。リトアニアのカウナス駐在日本領事、杉原千畝は、ナチスのユダヤ人問題の最終的解決から逃れてきたユダヤ人難民に何千ものビザを発行した。彼らはリトアニアのケイダンから鉄道でロシアを横断しウラジオストクに行き、そこから船で日本の神戸に向かった。彼らの神戸での滞在は短く、1941年11月までに日本政府は彼らを上海に移送した。他のユダヤ人難民は杉原を通じてではなく、イタリアからの船で上海に避難した。ヨーロッパからの難民は虹口地区の窮屈なゲットーに収容され、日本軍の真珠湾攻撃後には、第二次世界大戦前から上海に住んでいたイラク系ユダヤ人さえも収容された。上海ゲットーの難民の中には、ミラー・イェシーバーとその学生や教員もいた。 1945年9月3日、中国軍はゲットーを解放し、その後数年かけてほとんどのユダヤ人が解放された。[58]
中華人民共和国時代
1949年5月27日、人民解放軍は上海戦役を通じて上海を制圧した。新中華人民共和国(PRC)下では、上海は近隣の省に合併されなかった3つの市のうちの1つであった(他の2つは北京と天津)。[59]ほとんどの外国企業は、 PRCの勝利による外国投資撤退の一環として、上海から香港に事務所を移転した。 [60]

戦後、上海の経済は復興し、1949年から1952年にかけて、市の農業と工業生産高はそれぞれ51.5%と94.2%増加した。[38]当時、20の市区と10の郊外があった。[61] 1958年1月17日、江蘇省の嘉定、宝山、上海県が上海市に編入され、面積は863 km 2 (333.2 平方マイル)に拡大した。翌年12月、崇明、金山、青浦、奉賢、川沙、南匯などの江蘇省の郊外地域が加わり、上海の面積はさらに5,910 km 2 ( 2,281.9平方マイル)に拡大した。[62] 1964年に市の行政区分は10の市区と10の郡に再編された。[61]
最も熟練した工業労働者を擁する中国の工業中心地として、上海は1950年代から60年代にかけて急進左派の中心地となった。急進左派の江青と彼女の3人の仲間、四人組は、この都市を拠点としていた。[63]文化大革命(1966年~1976年)の間、上海の社会は深刻な打撃を受けた。中国人民銀行上海支店の労働者の大半は紅衛兵であり、彼らは支店内に反経済連絡本部と呼ばれるグループを結成した。[64] : 38 反経済連絡本部は、上海の経済組織を解体し、銀行引き出しを調査し、市内の通常の銀行業務を妨害した。[64] : 38 1967年の1月の嵐の間に、上海に上海人民公社が設立された。文化大革命の混乱にもかかわらず、上海は年間成長率プラスで経済生産を維持した。[38]
ソ連や米国の侵攻に備えて中国の奥地で基礎産業と重工業を発展させる第三戦線作戦の間、354,900人の上海人が第三戦線プロジェクトに従事するために派遣された。 [65] : xvi 上海の小第三戦線プロジェクトの中心は、安徽省後方基地の「後方基地」であり、「対空兵器と対戦車兵器の多機能製造基地」として機能した。[65] : xvi
1949年以来、上海は中央政府への税収の比較的大きな貢献をしてきた。1983年には、上海の税収の貢献は過去33年間に受け取った投資の合計を上回った。[66]上海は中央政府の財政健全性にとって重要であるため、 1978年に始まった経済自由化の対象から除外された。
1990年、鄧小平は上海に経済改革の開始を許可し、これにより上海に外国資本が再導入され、浦東地区が開発され、陸家嘴が誕生した。[67]その年、中国の中央政府は上海を経済改革の「龍頭」に指定した。[68] 2020年現在、上海はグローバリゼーションと世界都市研究ネットワークによってアルファ+都市に分類されており、世界のトップ10の主要都市の1つとなっている。[69]
2022年初頭、上海では新型コロナウイルス感染者の大規模な発生が見られた。地域限定のロックダウンでは感染者数の増加を食い止めることができなかったため、中国政府は4月5日に上海全体を封鎖した。政府のロックダウン措置により食品供給網が深刻な混乱に陥り、上海全域で広範囲にわたる食糧不足が発生した。ロックダウン措置は6月1日まで解除されなかった。[70]
地理

上海は中国東海岸の揚子江河口に位置し、北は揚子江、南は杭州湾、東は東シナ海に面している。この土地は揚子江の自然堆積と現代の干拓事業によって形成された。そのため、砂質土壌であり、高層ビルを建てる場合は、軟弱地盤に沈まないように深いコンクリート杭を使用する必要がある。[71]省レベルの上海市は、河口とその周辺の多くの島々の両方を管理している。南は浙江省、西と北は江蘇省と接している。 [72]市の最北端は崇明島にあり、20世紀に拡大して中国本土で2番目に大きな島となった。[73]行政上、崇明北部の江蘇省の飛び地や、浙江省嵊泗県の一部である上海の陽山港を形成する2つの島は含まれない。
上海は沖積平野に位置している。そのため、面積6,340.5 km 2 (2,448.1 平方マイル)の大半は平地で、平均標高は4 m (13 フィート) である。 [7]河口周辺には干潟生態系が存在するが、長い間農業目的で埋め立てられてきた。[74]市内には、余山などの丘陵がいくつかあるが、南西に位置し、最高地点は杭州湾の大金山島の頂上(103 m または 338 フィート) である。[7]上海には多くの河川、運河、小川、湖があり、太湖 流域の一部として豊富な水資源で知られている。[75]
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上海の中心部は、戦国時代に春申公の命により造られた揚子江の人工支流である黄浦江によって二分されている。 [29]市の歴史的中心地は黄浦江の西岸、蘇州江の河口近くに位置し、太湖と大運河につながっている。中心金融地区である陸家嘴は黄浦江の東岸に築かれた。上海の東岸では、浦東国際空港の建設により地元の湿地が破壊されたが、近くの浅瀬である九端沙を自然保護区として保護・拡張することで部分的に相殺されている。[76]
気候
上海は湿潤亜熱帯気候(ケッペンの気候区分:Cfa )に属し、年間平均気温は市街地で17.5℃(63.5℉)、郊外で16.2~17.2℃(61.2~63.0℉)である。[71]上海には四季がある。冬は温暖から寒く湿気が多く、シベリアからの北西風により夜間の気温が氷点下まで下がることがある。毎年、降雪日は平均4.7日、積雪日は平均1.6日である。[71]夏は高温多湿で、時折豪雨や異常な雷雨が予想される。平均して、年間14.5日が35℃(95℉)を超える。夏と初秋には、台風の影響を受けやすい。[77]
最も過ごしやすい季節は、一般的に春(天候は変わりやすく雨が多い)と秋(通常は晴れて乾燥している)です。月間日照率は6月の31%から8月の50%までで、市は年間1,754時間の明るい日照を受けます。(この段落で言及されているすべての平均値は、宝山区で観測されたデータです)1951年以降の最高気温は、1977年1月31日の−10.1℃(14℉)(非公式記録は1893年1月19日に−12.1℃(10℉))から、2017年7月21日[78]と2022年7月13日[79]の徐家匯の気象観測所と2024年8月2日の閔行区の40.9℃(106℉)までの範囲でした。[80]
都市景観
黄浦江のほとりに位置する外灘には、新古典主義の HSBCビルからアールデコのサッソンハウス(現在はピースホテルの一部)まで、 20世紀初頭の建築物が並んでいる。旧外国租界の多くの地域もよく保存されており、最も有名なのはフランス租界である。[87]上海には、上海博物館、上海大劇院、東方芸術センター、東方明珠塔など、建築的に特徴的で風変わりな建物も数多くある。急速な再開発にもかかわらず、旧市街には、精巧な江南スタイルの庭園である豫園など、いくつかの伝統的な建築とデザインが今も残っている。[88]
1920年代から1930年代にかけての建設ブームの結果、上海は世界でも最も多くのアール・デコ建築を有する都市の一つとなった。[87]上海で活躍した最も有名な建築家の一人は、1918年から1947年まで上海に住んでいたハンガリー系スロバキア人のラースロー・フデックである。 [89]彼の最も有名なアール・デコ建築には、パークホテル、グランドシネマ、パラマウントがある。[90]アール・デコ様式に貢献した他の著名な建築家には、ピースホテル、メトロポールホテル、ブロードウェイマンションを共同で設計したクレメント・パーマーとアーサー・ターナー、[91] 、キャピトルシアターを設計したオーストリア人建築家CHゴンダがいる。外灘は数回再開発されている。最初は1986年、オランダ人建築家パウルス・スノレンによる新しい遊歩道が作られた。 [92] 2つ目は2010年の万博前に行われたもので、100年前の外白渡橋の修復と交通の流れの再構築が含まれていました。[93]

特徴的な文化的要素の一つは、石庫門(「石の収納扉」)住宅である。これは通常、2階建てまたは3階建ての灰色のレンガ造りの家で、前庭は様式的な石のアーチにある重い木製の扉で保護されている。[94]各住宅は繋がっており、弄堂(longtang [h] )と呼ばれるまっすぐな路地に沿って配置されている。この家は西洋風のテラスハウスやタウンハウスに似ているが、各家の前に高くて重いレンガの壁とアーチがあるのが特徴である。[96]
石庫門は西洋建築の要素と江南の伝統的な中国建築および社会習慣が融合した文化的建築物である。[94]ほとんどすべての伝統的な中国住宅と同様に、石庫門には中庭があり、外部の騒音を軽減する。中庭では植物を育てることができ、部屋に日光と換気をもたらすこともできる。[97]

上海の建物の中にはソビエト新古典主義建築やスターリン主義建築の特徴を持つものがあるが、北京ほど多くはない。これらの建物は主に1949年の中華人民共和国の建国から1960年代後半の中ソ分裂の間に建てられた。この時期には、建築家を含む多数のソビエトの専門家が中国に流入し、共産主義国家の建設を支援した。上海のソビエト新古典主義建築の例として、現代の上海展覧センターがある。[98]
上海、特に陸家嘴には数多くの超高層ビルがあり、世界で5番目に超高層ビルの多い都市となっている。[99]最も顕著な例としては、高さ421メートル(1,381フィート)の金茂タワー、高さ492メートル(1,614フィート)の上海ワールドファイナンシャルセンター、そして高さ632メートル(2,073フィート)の上海タワーがあり、上海タワーは中国で最も高いビルであり、世界でも3番目に高いビルである。[100] 2015年に完成したこのタワーは、9つのねじれたセクションが積み重ねられた形をしており、合計128階建てである。[101]二重構造のファサードデザインが特徴で、二重構造によって熱吸収がすでに低減されているため、反射のためにどちらの層も不透明にする必要がない。[102]未来的な外観の東方明珠塔は高さ468メートル(1,535フィート)で、陸家嘴の北端の近くにあります。[103]陸家嘴以外の高層ビルには、虹口のホワイト・マグノリア・プラザ、黄埔の世茂国際広場、静安の上海輪石広場などがあります。
政治
構造

中国本土のすべての統治機関と同様に、上海には並行政党政治システムがあり、[108]中国共産党委員会書記(正式には中国共産党上海市委員会書記)が市長より上位である。[109]中国共産党委員会は最高の政策立案機関として機能し、通常は書記を含む12人で構成され、上海市人民政府を統制している。[110] [111]
上海の政治権力は、しばしば中央政府でより高い地位に就くための足がかりとなってきた。 1989年6月に江沢民が中国共産党総書記になって以来、1人を除く上海の元党書記全員が、事実上の最高意思決定機関である政治局常務委員会に昇格した。 [108]江沢民自身(党総書記)、[112]朱鎔基(首相)、 [113 ]呉邦国(全人代委員長)、[114] 黄菊(副首相)、[115] 習近平(現総書記)、[ 116 ]于正声(政治協商会議委員長)、 [117] 韓正(副首相兼副主席)、[ 118 ]李強(首相)である。[119]上海市の元副党書記である李曦は、2022年に政治局常務委員および中央委員会書記に就任した。唯一の例外は、2006年に解雇され、後に汚職で有罪判決を受けた陳良宇である。[120]
上海政府とつながりのある当局者は、上海閥と呼ばれる中央政府内の強力な派閥を形成しており、人事や政策決定をめぐってライバルの共青団派と対立しているとみられている。 [121]しかし、胡錦濤の後継者として総書記兼国家主席となった習近平は、基本的に独立した指導者であり、両派閥に対して反汚職キャンペーンを展開した。 [122]
行政区分
上海は中央人民政府直轄地の4つの直轄市の一つであり[123] 、16の県レベルの区に分かれている。
各区にはそれぞれ都心部があるが、市庁舎や主要な行政機関は黄埔区に位置しており、有名な南京路を含む商業地区でもある。その他の主要商業地区としては、黄埔区の新天地や淮海路[i]、徐匯区の徐家匯[j]などがある。上海の多くの大学は楊浦区や普陀区の住宅街に位置している。

7 つの地区は、黄浦江の西岸にある上海の旧市街地である浦西 (文字通り 「西岸」または「浦江の西側」) を管轄しています。これらの 7 つの地区は、黄浦、徐匯、長寧、静安、普陀、虹口、楊浦 で構成され、総称して上海市区 (上海市区) または中心都市 (市中心) と呼ばれています。
浦東(文字通り 「東岸」または「浦江の東」)は、黄浦江の東岸にある上海の都市部と郊外の新しい部分であり、浦東新区(浦東新区)によって統治されています。[k]
7つの区は、郊外、衛星都市、都市中心部から離れた農村地域を管轄しており、宝山区、[l] 閔行区、[m]嘉定区、[n]金山区、[o]松江区、[p]青浦区、[q]奉賢区である。[r]
崇明区は、長興島、横沙島、および崇明島 の大部分(全てではない)で構成されています。
2009年、旧南匯区は浦東区に吸収された。2011年、盧湾区は黄埔区と合併した。2015年現在、これらの県級[update]区分はさらに、109の鎮、2つの郷、99の街区の計210の郷級区分に分かれている。さらに、これらは村級区分に分かれており、3,661の町委員会と1,704の村委員会がある。[129]
上海には、主に閔行区に、かなりの規模の韓国人コミュニティと日本人コミュニティがあります。
経済

上海は、急成長する中国経済の「見本」と評されてきた。[132] [133]この都市は、金融とイノベーションの世界的な中心地であり、[134] [135]世界で最も忙しいコンテナ港である上海港を擁する国家の商業、貿易、輸送の中心地でもある。[137] 2018年の時点で、蘇州、無錫、南通、寧波、嘉興、舟山、湖州を含む上海大都市圏は、約9.1兆人民元(名目1.33兆ドル、購買力平価では2.08兆ドル)の都市圏総生産を生み出していると推定され、 GDP(名目)1.22兆ドルのメキシコを上回り、世界で15番目に大きい。 [138] [139] 2020年現在、上海の経済は1兆ドル(購買力平価)と推定されており、中国で最も生産性の高い都市圏であり、世界でもトップ10の都市経済圏にランクされています。 [140]上海の6大産業(小売、金融、IT、不動産、機械製造、自動車製造)は、市のGDPの約半分を占めています。[141] 2023年時点で、上海のGDPは4兆7,200億元(名目6,638.7億ドル)で、中国のGDPの3.54%を占め、一人当たりGDPは18万9,828元(名目2万6,187ドル)となっている[142] 。2022年の上海市民の年間可処分所得は一人当たり7万9,610元( 1万1,836ドル)で、上海の都市部で働く人の平均年間給与は21万2,476元( 3万1,589ドル)であり、[143]中国で最も裕福な都市の一つとなっているが、[144]エコノミスト・インテリジェンス・ユニットによる2023年の調査によると、中国本土で最も生活費の高い都市でもある。[145]上海は2018年以来、世界初の輸入をテーマにした国家レベルの博覧会である 中国国際輸入博覧会(CIIE)を毎年開催しています。[update]
2023年には、市の輸出入額は7.73兆元(1.07兆米ドル)に達し、全国総額の18.5%を占めた。[146]
ジュリアス・ベアの「世界の富とライフスタイルに関する報告書」によると、上海は2021年に贅沢なライフスタイルを送るのに世界で最も費用のかかる都市だった。 [147]上海は世界で5番目に裕福な都市であり、総資産は1.8兆ドルに達している。[148]また、フォーブス誌によると、上海は億万長者の数で5番目に多い都市だった。[149]オックスフォード・エコノミクスの調査によると、上海の名目GDPは2035年に1.3兆ドルに達すると予測されており(中国で1位)、GRPで世界トップ5の主要都市の1つになる。[150] 2024年8月現在、上海はフォーチュン・グローバル500企業の数で世界第4位、中国第2位(北京に次ぐ)となっている。[151]
上海は1930年代には東アジア最大かつ最も繁栄した都市であり、1990年代に急速な再開発が始まりました。[49]過去20年間、上海は世界で最も急速に発展している都市の一つであり、2007~ 2008年の金融危機以前の1992年から2008年まで、ほぼ毎年2桁のGDP成長を記録してきました。[159]
ファイナンス

上海は世界的な金融センターであり、Z/Yenと中国開発研究所が2020年9月に発表した第28回世界金融センター指数[160]では、アジア・オセアニア地域で第1位、世界では(ニューヨークとロンドンに次いで)第3位にランクされています。[161]上海は中国と世界のテクノロジー産業の一大拠点でもあり、大規模なスタートアップエコシステムの本拠地でもあります。2021年現在、この都市はニューヨークに次ぐ世界第2位のフィンテック大国としてランク付けされています。 [162]
2019年現在[update]、上海証券取引所の時価総額は4兆200億米ドルで、中国最大、世界第4位の証券取引所となっている。 [163] 2009年、上海先物取引所におけるゴム、銅、亜鉛を含む6つの主要商品の取引量はすべて世界第1位であった。[164] 2017年末までに、上海には1,491の金融機関があり、そのうち251は外資系であった。[165]
2013年9月、李克強首相の支援を受けて、上海市は中国本土初の自由貿易区となる上海自由貿易区を開設した。同区では、外国投資を奨励するための試験的改革が数多く導入された。2014年4月、ザ・バンカー誌は「 2014年1月末までの12か月間で、上海はアジア太平洋地域で金融部門の外国直接投資が最も多く集まった」と報じた。 [166] 2014年8月、fDi誌は「ビジネスフレンドリーとコネクティビティの分野で特に印象的な成績を収め、経済的潜在力と人的資本とライフスタイルの分野で2位になった」として、上海を「2014/15年の中国の未来の省」に選んだ。[167]
製造業
中国の主要な工業中心地の一つとして、上海は国内の製造業と重工業で重要な役割を果たしている。上海虹橋経済技術開発区、金橋輸出経済加工区、閔行経済技術開発区、上海漕河涇ハイテク開発区など、いくつかの工業団地が上海の第二次産業の屋台骨となっている。上海には、中国最大の鉄鋼メーカーである宝鋼集団、中国最大の造船拠点である滬東中華造船集団、中国最古の造船所の一つである江南造船所がある。[168] [169]自動車製造も重要な産業である。上海に本拠を置く上海汽車集団は、中国三大自動車企業の一社であり、フォルクスワーゲンやゼネラルモーターズと戦略的提携を結んでいる。[170]同社は2023年のフォーチュン・グローバル500社リストで84位にランクされた。[171]
観光

観光は上海の主要産業である。2017年の国内観光客数は7.5%増加して3億1800万人となり、海外観光客数は2.2%増加して873万人となった。[165] 2017年、上海は世界で最も収益の高い観光都市であった。[172] 2023年現在、上海には5つ星ホテルが[update]57軒、4つ星ホテルが52軒、旅行代理店が1,942軒、格付けされた観光スポットが144軒、レッド観光スポットが34軒ある。[153]
2023年、上海の観光産業の付加価値は1,771.2億元(245.3億米ドル)に達し、前年比98.5%増と驚異的な伸びを示した。上海を訪れた観光客は364万人に達し、2022年比4.8倍となった。外国人観光客は241万人に達し、5.2倍に増加した。[153]
会議・ミーティング部門も成長している。国際会議協会によると、上海では2018年に82件の国際会議が開催され、2017年の61件から34%増加した。[173] [174]
自由貿易地域
Shanghai is home to China (Shanghai) Pilot Free-Trade Zone, the first free-trade zone in mainland China.[175] As of October 2019[update], it is also the second largest free-trade zone in mainland China in terms of land area (behind Hainan Free Trade Zone, which covers the whole Hainan province[176]) by covering an area of 240.22 km2 (92.75 sq mi) and integrating four existing bonded zones—Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone, Waigaoqiao Free Trade Logistics Park, Yangshan Free Trade Port Area, and Pudong Airport Comprehensive Free Trade Zone.[177][178] The industrial chain of port logistics has shaped the future development direction of the free-trade zone in Shanghai. Currently, two port chain centers have been approved for construction in Waigaoqiao and Yangshan.[179] Several preferential policies have been implemented to attract foreign investment in various industries to the zone. Because the zone is not technically considered Chinese territory for tax purposes, commodities entering the zone are exempt from duty and customs clearance.[180]
Demographics
As of 2023[update], Shanghai had a total population of 24,874,500, including 14,801,700 (59.5%) hukou holders (registered locally).[153] As of 2022[update], 89.3% of Shanghai's population live in urban areas, and 10.7% live in rural areas.[143] Based on the population of its total administrative area, Shanghai is the second largest of the four municipalities of China, behind Chongqing, but is generally considered the largest Chinese city because the urban population of Chongqing is much smaller.[182] According to the OECD, Shanghai's metropolitan area has an estimated population of 34 million.[183]
According to the Shanghai Municipal Statistics Bureau, about 157,900 residents in Shanghai are foreigners, including 28,900 Japanese, 21,900 Americans and 20,800 Koreans.[184] The actual number of foreign citizens in the city is probably much higher.[185] Shanghai is also a domestic immigration city—40.3% (9.8 million) of the city's residents are from other regions of China.[153]
Shanghai has a life expectancy of 83.18 years for the city's registered population,[186] the highest life expectancy of all cities in mainland China. This has also caused the city to experience population aging—in 2021, 17.4% (4.3 million) of the city's registered population was aged 65 or above.[153] In 2017, the Chinese government implemented population controls for Shanghai, resulting in a population decline of 10,000 people by the end of the year.[187]
Religion
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Due to its cosmopolitan history, Shanghai has a blend of religious heritage; religious buildings and institutions are scattered around the city. According to a 2012 survey, only 13.1% of the city's population belongs to organized religions, including Buddhists with 10.4%, Protestants with 1.9%, Catholics with 0.7%, and other faiths with 0.1% while the remaining 86.9% of the population could be either atheists or involved in worship of nature deities and ancestors or folk religious sects.[188]
Religion in Shanghai (2012):
Buddhism, in its Chinese varieties, has had a presence in Shanghai since the Three Kingdoms period, during which the Longhua Temple—the largest temple in Shanghai—and the Jing'an Temple were founded.[189] Another significant temple is the Jade Buddha Temple, which was named after a large statue of Buddha carved out of jade in the temple.[190] As of 2014[update], Buddhism in Shanghai had 114 temples, 1,182 clergical staff, and 453,300 registered followers.[189] The religion also has its own college, the Shanghai Buddhist College, and its own press, Shanghai Buddhological Press.[191]

Catholicism was brought into Shanghai in 1608 by Italian missionary Lazzaro Cattaneo.[192] The Apostolic Vicariate of Shanghai was erected in 1933, and was further elevated to the Diocese of Shanghai in 1946.[193] Notable Catholic sites include the St. Ignatius Cathedral in Xujiahui—the largest Catholic church in the city,[194] the St. Francis Xavier Church, and the She Shan Basilica.[195] Other forms of Christianity in Shanghai include Eastern Orthodox minorities and, since 1996, registered Christian Protestant churches. The Protestant All Saints Church in Huangpu was built in 1925 and features a Neo-Romanesque tower.
Although currently making up a fraction of the religious population in Shanghai, Jewish people have played an influential role in the city's history. After the Treaty of Nanking ended the First Opium War in 1842, the city was opened up to western populations and merchants traveled to Shanghai for its rich business potential, including many prominent Jewish families. The Sassoons amassed great wealth in the opium and textile trades, cementing their status by funding many of the buildings that have become iconic in Shanghai's skyline, such as the Cathay Hotel in 1929.[196] The Hardoons were another prominent Baghdadi Jewish family that used their business success to define Shanghai in the 20th century. The head of the family, Silas Hardoon, one of the richest people in the world during the 1800s, financed Nanjing Road, which then housed departmental stores in the International Settlement, that is now one of the busiest shopping centers in the world.[196]
During World War II, thousands of Jews emigrated to Shanghai in an effort to flee Nazi Germany. They lived in a designated area called the Shanghai Ghetto and formed a community centered on the Ohel Moishe Synagogue, which is now the Shanghai Jewish Refugees Museum.[197] In 1939, Horace Kadoorie, the head of the powerful philanthropic Sephardic Jewish family in Shanghai, founded the Shanghai Jewish Youth Association to support Jewish refugees through English education so they would be prepared to emigrate from Shanghai when the time came.[198]
Islam came into Shanghai during the Yuan dynasty. The city's first mosque, Songjiang Mosque, was built during the Zhizheng (至正) era under Emperor Huizong (reigned 1333 – 1368). Shanghai's Muslim population increased in the 19th and early 20th centuries (when the city was a treaty port), during which time many mosques—including the Xiaotaoyuan Mosque, the Huxi Mosque, and the Pudong Mosque—were built. The Shanghai Islamic Association is located in the Xiaotaoyuan Mosque in Huangpu.[199] According to the sixth census of China in 2010, there are an estimated 85,000 Muslims in Shanghai, compared from 20,000 in 1949 and 7,000 in 1936.[200]
Shanghai has several folk religious temples, including the City God Temple at the heart of the Old City, the Dajing Ge Pavilion dedicated to the Three Kingdoms general Guan Yu, the Confucian Temple of Shanghai, and a major Taoist center Shanghai White Cloud Temple where the Shanghai Taoist Association locates.[201]
Language
The vernacular language spoken in the city is Shanghainese, part of the Taihu Wu subgroup of the Wu Chinese language family. This is different from the national language, Mandarin, which is mutually unintelligible with Wu Chinese.[203] Modern Shanghainese derives from the indigenous Wu spoken in the former Songjiang prefecture but has been influenced by other dialects of Taihu Wu, most notably Suzhounese, and Ningbonese[204]
Prior to its expansion, the language spoken in Shanghai was not as prominent as those spoken around Jiaxing and later Suzhou,[204] and was known as "the local tongue" (本地閑話), a name which is now used in suburbs only.[205] In the late 19th century, downtown Shanghainese (市區閑話 or simply 上海閑話) appeared, undergoing rapid changes and quickly replacing Suzhounese as the prestige dialect of the Yangtze River Delta region. At the time, most of the immigration into the city came from the two adjacent provinces, Jiangsu and Zhejiang, the local dialects of which had the greatest influence on Shanghainese. After 1949, Putonghua (Standard Mandarin) has also had a great impact on Shanghainese as a result of being rigorously promoted by the government.[204] Since the 1990s, many migrants outside of the Wu-speaking region have come to Shanghai for education and jobs. They often cannot speak the local language and therefore use Putonghua (Mandarin) as a lingua franca. Because Putonghua and English were more favored, Shanghainese began to decline, and fluency among young speakers weakened. In recent years, there have been movements within the city to promote the local language and protect it from fading out.[206][207]
Education and research

Shanghai is an international center of research and development and as of 2022, it was ranked third globally and second in the whole Asia & Oceania region (after Beijing) by scientific research outputs, as tracked by the Nature Index.[208] It is also a major center of higher education in China. As of 2023, Shanghai had 68 universities and colleges, ranking first in East China region as a city with most higher education institutions.[209]
Shanghai has many highly ranked educational institutions,[210][211] with 15 universities listed in 147 Double First-Class Universities ranking second nationwide among all cities in China (after Beijing). A number of China's most prestigious universities appearing in the global university rankings are based in Shanghai, including Fudan University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Tongji University, East China Normal University, Shanghai University, East China University of Science and Technology, Donghua University, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai International Studies University, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai University of Electric Power, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai Maritime University, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai Conservatory of Music, and Shanghai University of Sport.[211][212][213] Some of these universities were selected as "985 universities" or "211 universities" since the 90s by the Chinese government in order to build world-class universities.[214][215]

Shanghai is a seat of two members (Fudan University and Shanghai Jiao Tong University) of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education,[216] and these two universities are ranked consistently in the Asia top 10, [217][218] and in the global top 100 research comprehensive universities according to the most influential university rankings in the world such as QS Rankings, Shanghai Rankings, Times Higher Education Rankings and U.S. News & World Report Best Global Universities Ranking.[219][220][221][211] Fudan University established a joint EMBA program with Washington University in St. Louis in 2002 which has since consistently been ranked as one of the best in the world.[222][223]
The other two members of the "Project 985," Tongji University and East China Normal University, are also based in Shanghai and internationally; they are regarded as one of the most reputable Chinese universities by the Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings where they ranked 150–175th globally.[224] The city is also home to the Shanghai University of Sport, which consistently ranks the best in China among universities specialized in sports.[225] As of 2023, Shanghai University of Sport ranks #1 in Asia and #36 globally according to the "Global Ranking of Sport Science Schools and Departments 2023" released by Shanghai Ranking.[226]
The city has many Chinese–foreign joint education institutes, such as the Shanghai University–University of Technology Sydney Business School since 1994, the University of Michigan–Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute since 2006, and New York University Shanghai—the first China–U.S. joint venture university—since 2012.[227][228] In 2013, the Shanghai Municipality and the Chinese Academy of Sciences founded the ShanghaiTech University in the Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park in Pudong.[229] Shanghai is also home to the cadre school China Executive Leadership Academy in Pudong and the China Europe International Business School. The city government's education agency is the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission.
The city is also a seat of the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences, China's oldest think tank for the humanities and social sciences. It is the largest one outside the capital of Beijing after the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS).[230]
By the end of 2023, the city also had a total of 49 institutions for postgraduate education, 68 institutions for higher education, 900 secondary schools, 70 vocational schools, 664 primary schools, and 31 special education schools.[153] In Shanghai, the nine years of compulsory education—including five years of primary education and four years of junior secondary education—are free, with a gross enrollment ratio of over 99.9%.[153] The city's compulsory education system is among the best in the world: in 2009 and 2012, 15-year-old students from Shanghai ranked first in every subject (math, reading, and science) in the Program for International Student Assessment, a worldwide study of academic performance conducted by the OECD.[231][232] The consecutive three-year senior secondary education is priced and uses the Senior High School Entrance Examination (Zhongkao) as a selection process, with a gross enrollment ratio of 98%.[233] Among all senior high schools, the four with the best teaching quality—Shanghai High School, No. 2 High School Attached to East China Normal University, High School Affiliated to Fudan University, and High School Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University—are termed "The Four Schools" (“四校”) of Shanghai.[234] As of October 2019[update], the city's National College Entrance Examination (Gaokao) is structured under the "3+3" system, in which all general senior high school students study three compulsory subjects (Chinese, English, and math) and three subjects chosen from six options (physics, chemistry, biology, history, geography, and politics).[235]
Transport
Public


Shanghai has an extensive public transportation system comprising metros, buses, ferries, and taxis, all of which can be accessed using a Shanghai Public Transport Card.[236]
Shanghai's rapid transit system, the Shanghai Metro, incorporates both subway and light metro lines and extends to every core urban district as well as neighboring suburban districts. As of 2021[update], there are 19 metro lines (excluding the Shanghai maglev train and Jinshan railway), 515 stations, and 803 km (499 mi) of lines in operation, making it the longest network in the world.[153] On 8 March 2019, it set the city's daily metro ridership record with 13.3 million.[237] The average fare ranges from CN¥3 (US$0.48) to CN¥9 (US$1.28), depending on the travel distance.[238]

Opened in 2004, the Shanghai maglev train is the first and the fastest commercial high-speed maglev in the world, with a maximum operation speed of 430 km/h (267 mph).[239] The train can complete the 30-kilometer (19 mi) journey between Longyang Road station and Pudong International Airport in 7 minutes 20 seconds,[240] comparing to 32 minutes by Metro Line 2[241] and 30 minutes by car.[242] A one-way ticket costs CN¥50 (US$8), or CN¥40 (US$6.40) for those with airline tickets or public transportation cards. A round-trip ticket costs CN¥80 (US$12.80), and VIP tickets cost double the standard fare.[243]
With the first tram line been in service in 1908, trams were once popular in Shanghai in the early 20th century. By 1925, there were 328 tramcars and 14 routes operated by Chinese, French, and British companies collaboratively,[244] all of which were nationalized after the PRC's victory in 1949. Since the 1960s, many tram lines were either dismantled or replaced by trolleybus or motorbus lines;[245] the last tram line was demolished in 1975.[246] Shanghai reintroduced trams in 2010, as a modern rubber-tire Translohr system in Zhangjiang area of East Shanghai as Zhangjiang Tram.[247] In 2018, the steel wheeled Songjiang Tram started operating in Songjiang District.[248] Additional tram lines are under planning in Hongqiao Subdistrict and Jiading District as of 2019[update].[249]

Shanghai also has the world's most extensive bus network, including the world's oldest continuously operating trolleybus system, with 1,575 lines covering a total length of 8,997 km (5,590 mi) by 2019.[153] The system is operated by multiple companies.[250] Bus fares generally cost CN¥2 (US$0.32).[251] Shanghai also has three bus rapid transit systems, namely the Yan'an Road Medium Capacity Bus Transit System, Fengpu Express and Nantuan Express.
As of 2019[update], a total of 40,000 taxis were in operation in Shanghai.[153] The base fare for taxis is CN¥14 (US$2.24), which covers the first 3 km (2 mi) and includes a CN¥1 (US$0.14) fuel surcharge. The base fare is CN¥18 (US$2.55) between 11:00 pm and 5:00 am. Each additional kilometer costs CN¥2.7 (US$0.45), or CN¥4.05 (US$0.67) between 11:00 pm and 5:00 am.[252] Taxicabs and DiDi play major roles in urban transportation and DiDi is often cheaper than taxis.[253]
As of January 2021, Shanghai Metro has 459 stations and 772 km. The scale of operation is the first in the world. in 2017, the average daily passenger traffic of the Shanghai metro was 9.693 million, and the total passenger traffic reached 3.538 billion. It is one of the busiest metro cities in the world. The metro lines cover the central city densely and connect most districts and counties.[254]
Roads and expressways
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Shanghai is a major hub of China's expressway network. Many national expressways (prefixed with the letter G) pass through or end in Shanghai, including Jinghu Expressway (overlaps with Hurong Expressway), Shenhai Expressway, Hushaan Expressway, Huyu Expressway, Hukun Expressway (overlaps with Hangzhou Bay Ring Expressway), and Shanghai Ring Expressway.[255] There are also numerous municipal expressways prefixed with the letter S.[255] As of 2019, Shanghai has a total of 12 bridges and 14 tunnels crossing the Huangpu River.[256][257] The Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge is the city's only bridge–tunnel complex across Yangtze River.
The expressway network within the city center consists of North–South Elevated Road, Yan'an Elevated Road, and Inner Ring Road. Other ring roads in Shanghai include Middle Ring Road, Outer Ring Expressway, and Shanghai Ring Expressway.

Bicycle lanes are common in Shanghai, separating non-motorized traffic from car traffic on most surface streets. However, on some main roads, including all expressways, bicycles and motorcycles are banned. In recent years, cycling has seen a resurgence in popularity due to the emergence of a large number of dockless app-based bicycle-sharing systems, such as Mobike, Bluegogo, and ofo.[258] As of December 2018[update], bicycle-sharing systems had an average of 1.15 million daily riders within the city.[259]
Private car ownership in Shanghai is rapidly increasing: in 2019, there were 3.40 million private cars in the city, a 12.5% increase from 2018.[153] New private cars cannot be driven without a license plate, which are sold in monthly license plate auctions. Around 9,500 license plates are auctioned each month, and the average price is about CN¥89,600 (US$12,739) in 2019.[260] According to the city's vehicle regulations introduced in June 2016, only locally registered residents and those who have paid social insurance or individual income taxes for over three years are eligible to be in the auction. The purpose of this policy is to limit the growth of automobile traffic and alleviate congestion.[261] Public transport, biking infrastructure, walkability, generally permits to live in the city without a car.[262][263][264]
License plates for fully electric cars or plug-in hybrid vehicles are free.[265]: 168
Railways

Shanghai has four major railway stations: Shanghai railway station, Shanghai South railway station, Shanghai West railway station, and Shanghai Hongqiao railway station.[266] All are connected to the metro network and serve as hubs in the railway network of China. And now Shanghai has around twenty railway lines running under this city, which largely facilitate people's life in Shanghai.
Built in 1876, the Woosung railway was the first railway in Shanghai and the first railway in operation in China[267] By 1909, Shanghai–Nanjing railway and Shanghai–Hangzhou railway were in service.[268][269] As of October 2019[update], the two railways have been integrated into two main railways in China: Beijing–Shanghai railway and Shanghai–Kunming railway, respectively.[270]
Shanghai has four high-speed railways (HSRs): Beijing–Shanghai HSR (overlaps with Shanghai–Wuhan–Chengdu passenger railway), Shanghai–Nanjing intercity railway, Shanghai–Kunming HSR, and Shanghai–Nantong railway. One HSR is under construction: Shanghai–Suzhou–Huzhou HSR.[271][272]
Shanghai also has four commuter railways: Pudong railway (passenger service is currently suspended) and Jinshan railway operated by China Railway, and Line 16 and Line 17 operated by Shanghai Metro.[273][274] As of January 2022[update], four additional lines—Chongming line, Jiamin line, Airport link line and Lianggang Express line—are under construction.[274][275]
Air and sea

Shanghai is one of the largest air transportation hubs in Asia.[276] The city has two commercial airports: Shanghai Pudong International Airport and Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport.[277] Pudong International Airport is the primary international airport, while Hongqiao International Airport mainly operates domestic flights with limited short-haul international flights. In 2018, Pudong International Airport served 74.0 million passengers and handled 3.8 million tons of cargo, making it the ninth-busiest airport by passenger volume and third-busiest airport by cargo volume.[278][279] The same year, Hongqiao International Airport served 43.6 million passengers, making it the 19th-busiest airport by passenger volume.[278]

Since its opening, the Port of Shanghai has rapidly grown to become the largest port in China.[280] Yangshan Port was built in 2005 because the river was unsuitable for docking large container ships. The port is connected with the mainland through the 32-kilometer (20 mi) long Donghai Bridge. Although the port is run by the Shanghai International Port Group under the government of Shanghai, it administratively belongs to Shengsi County, Zhejiang.[281]
Overtaking the Port of Singapore in 2010,[282] the Port of Shanghai has become world's busiest container port with an annual TEU transportation of 42 million in 2018.[283] Besides cargo, the Port of Shanghai handled 259 cruises and 1.89 million passengers in 2019.[153]
Shanghai is part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to the south via the southern tip of India to Mombasa, from there to the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and the Eastern Europe.[284][285][286][287][288]
Culture

The culture of Shanghai was formed by a combination of the nearby Wuyue culture and the "East Meets West" Haipai culture. Wuyue culture's influence is manifested in Shanghainese language—which comprises dialectal elements from nearby Jiaxing, Suzhou, and Ningbo—and Shanghai cuisine, which was influenced by Jiangsu cuisine and Zhejiang cuisine.[289] Haipai culture emerged after Shanghai became a prosperous port in the early 20th century, with numerous foreigners from Europe, America, Japan, and India moving into the city.[290] The culture fuses elements of Western cultures with the local Wuyue culture, and its influence extends to the city's literature, fashion, architecture, music, and cuisine.[291] The term Haipai—originally referring to a painting school in Shanghai—was coined by a group of Beijing writers in 1920 to criticize some Shanghai scholars for admiring capitalism and Western culture.[291][292] In the early 21st century, Shanghai has been recognized as a new influence and inspiration for cyberpunk culture.[293]
Museums

Cultural curation in Shanghai has seen significant growth since 2013, with several new museums having been opened in the city.[294] This is in part due to the city's 2018 development plans, which aim to make Shanghai "an excellent global city."[295] As such, Shanghai has several museums of regional and national importance.[296][297] The Shanghai Museum has one of the largest collections of Chinese artifacts in the world, including a large collection of ancient Chinese bronzes and ceramics.[298] The China Art Museum, located in the former China pavilion at Expo 2010, is one of the largest museums in Asia and displays an animated replica of the 12th century painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival.[299] The Shanghai Natural History Museum and the Shanghai Science and Technology Museum are notable natural history and science museums. In addition, there are numerous smaller, specialist museums housed in important archeological and historical sites, such as the Songze Museum,[300] the Site of the First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, the site of the former Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea,[301] the Shanghai Jewish Refugees Museum, and the Shanghai Post Office Museum (located in the General Post Office Building).[302]
Cuisine

Benbang cuisine (本帮菜)[303] is cooking style that originated in the 1600s, with influences from surrounding provinces. It emphasizes the use of condiments while retaining the original flavors of the raw ingredients. Sugar is an important ingredient in Benbang cuisine, especially when used in combination with soy sauce. Signature dishes of Benbang cuisine include Xiaolongbao, Red braised pork belly, and Shanghai hairy crab.[304] Haipai cuisine, on the other hand, is a Western-influenced cooking style that originated in Shanghai. It absorbed elements from French, British, Russian, German, and Italian cuisines and adapted them to suit the local taste according to the features of local ingredients.[305] Famous dishes of Haipai cuisine include Shanghai-style borscht (罗宋汤, "Russian soup"), crispy pork cutlets, and Shanghai salad derived from Olivier salad.[306] Both Benbang and Haipai cuisine make use of a variety of seafood, including freshwater fish, shrimps, and crabs.[307]
- Nanxiang xiaolongbao(南翔小笼包): Xiaolongbao refers to Chinese soup dumplings. Nanxiang xiaolongbao is a traditional specialty of Nanxiang town in Jiading district, renowned for its thin skin, tender meat, abundant soup, and fresh flavor. The dumplings are usually served piping hot in xiaolong, or bamboo baskets. The craft of making xiaolongbao was designated as a municipal intangible cultural heritage in April 2007.[308]
- Shanghai shengjian (上海生煎) : Shanghai shengjian, or Shanghai pan-fried buns, a renowned Shanghai delicacy, involves pan-frying the buns without prior steaming. The filling consists of savory pork and green onions, creating a soupy texture. After frying, water is added to the pan before covering it. The buns are then cooked for approximately 8–10 minutes until the bottoms turn golden brown and crispy.[309]
- Congyou banmian(葱油拌面): Congyou banmian, or scallion oil noodles, is a popular noodle dish in Shanghai and can be found in many local restaurants and food stalls. The scallion oil is made by crisping and browning chopped scallions in hot oil. The dish is then coated in scallion oil, soy sauce, and spices, offering a blend of savory, sweet, and mildly spicy flavors. [310]
- Paigu niangao(排骨年糕): Paigu niangao, or stir-fried pork ribs and rice cakes, is a traditional dish in Shanghai. This dish uses fresh pork ribs paired with small and thin rice cakes, which are cooked through oil blanching and simmering. The pork ribs have a golden color, a crispy surface, and tender meat while the rice cakes are soft and chewy.[311]
- Shuijing xiaren(水晶虾仁): Shuijing xiaren, or crystal shrimp, is a favorite among Shanghai locals. This dish features shrimp and eggs, with no additional ingredients to distract from its simplicity. The shrimp is cooked until just translucent, earning its "crystal" name. Well-prepared crystal shrimp is tender yet crispy, with a robust shrimp flavor and a reddish hue tinged with milky white.[312]
Arts

The Songjiang School (淞江派), containing the Huating School (华亭派) founded by Gu Zhengyi,[313] was a small painting school in Shanghai during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.[314] It was represented by Dong Qichang.[315] The school was considered an expansion of the Wu School in Suzhou, the cultural center of the Jiangnan region at the time.[316] In the mid 19th century, the Shanghai School movement commenced, focusing less on the symbolism emphasized by the Literati style but more on the visual content of painting through the use of bright colors. Secular objects like flowers and birds were often selected as themes.[317] Western art was introduced to Shanghai in 1847 by Spanish missionary Joannes Ferrer (范廷佐), and the city's first Western atelier was established in 1864 inside the Tushanwan orphanage.[318] During the Republic of China, many famous artists including Zhang Daqian, Liu Haisu, Xu Beihong, Feng Zikai, and Yan Wenliang settled in Shanghai, allowing it to gradually become the art center of China. Various art forms—including photography, wood carving, sculpture, comics (Manhua), and Lianhuanhua—thrived. Sanmao was created to dramatize the chaos created by the Second Sino-Japanese War.[319] Today, the most comprehensive art and cultural facility in Shanghai is the China Art Museum. In addition, the Chinese Painting Academy features traditional Chinese painting,[320] while the Power Station of Art displays contemporary art.[321] The city also has many art galleries, many of which are located in the M50 Art District and Tianzifang. First held in 1996, the Shanghai Biennale has become an important place for Chinese and foreign arts to interact.[322]

Traditional Chinese opera (Xiqu) became a popular source of public entertainment in the late 19th century. In the early 20th century, monologue and burlesque in Shanghainese appeared, absorbing elements from traditional dramas. The Great World opened in 1912 and was a significant stage at the time.[323] In the 1920s, Pingtan expanded from Suzhou to Shanghai.[324] Pingtan art developed rapidly to 103 programs every day by the 1930s because of the abundant commercial radio stations in the city. Around the same time, a Shanghai-style Beijing Opera was formed. Led by Zhou Xinfang and Gai Jiaotian, it attracted many Xiqu masters, like Mei Lanfang, to the city.[325] A small troupe from Shengxian (now Shengzhou) also began to promote Yue opera on the Shanghainese stage.[326] A unique style of opera, Shanghai opera, was formed when local folksongs were fused with modern operas.[327] As of 2012, prominent troupes in Shanghai include Shanghai Jingju Theatre Company, Shanghai Kunqu Opera Troupe, Shanghai Yue Opera House, and Shanghai Huju Opera House.[328]
Drama appeared in missionary schools in Shanghai in the late 19th century. At the time, it was mainly performed in English. Scandals in Officialdom (官场丑史), staged in 1899, was one of the earliest-recorded plays.[329] In 1907, Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly (黑奴吁天录) was performed at the Lyceum Theatre.[330] After the New Culture Movement, drama became a popular way for students and intellectuals to express their views. The city has several major institutes of theater training, including the Shanghai Conservatory of Music, the Shanghai Dramatic Arts Centre, the Shanghai Opera House, and the Shanghai Theatre Academy. Notable theaters in Shanghai include the Shanghai Grand Theatre, the Oriental Art Center, and the People's Theatre.

Shanghai is considered to be the birthplace of Chinese cinema.[331] China's first short film, The Difficult Couple (1913), and the country's first fictional feature film, An Orphan Rescues His Grandfather (孤儿救祖记, 1923)[332] were both produced in Shanghai. Shanghai's film industry grew during the early 1930s, generating stars such as Hu Die, Ruan Lingyu, Zhou Xuan, Jin Yan, and Zhao Dan. Another film star, Jiang Qing, went on to become Madame Mao Zedong. The exile of Shanghainese filmmakers and actors as a result of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Communist revolution contributed enormously to the development of the Hong Kong film industry.[333] The movie In the Mood for Love directed by Wong Kar-wai, a Shanghai native, depicts a slice of the displaced Shanghainese community in Hong Kong and the nostalgia for that era, featuring 1940s music by Zhou Xuan.[334]
Shanghai's cultural festivals include Shanghai International Television Festival, Shanghai International Film Festival, Shanghai International Art Festival, Shanghai International Tourism Festival, Shanghai Spring International Music Festival, etc. Shanghai TV Festival is the earliest international TV festival founded in China. It was founded in 1986. The Shanghai International Film Festival was founded in 1993 and is one of the nine major international film festivals in the A category. The highest award is the "Golden Goblet Award"[335]
Fashion
Since 2001, Shanghai has held its own fashion week called Shanghai Fashion Week twice every year in April and October. The main venue is in Fuxing Park, and the opening and closing ceremonies are held in the Shanghai Fashion Center. The April session is also part of the one-month Shanghai International Fashion Culture Festival.[336] Shanghai Fashion Week is considered to be an event of national significance featuring both international and Chinese designers. The international presence has included many promising young British fashion designers.[337] The event is hosted by the Shanghai Municipal Government and supported by the People's Republic Ministry of Commerce.[338]
Sports

Shanghai is home to several football teams, including two in the Chinese Super League: Shanghai Shenhua[339] and Shanghai Port.[340] Shanghai's top-tier basketball team, the Shanghai Sharks of the Chinese Basketball Association, developed Yao Ming before he entered the NBA.[341][342] Shanghai's baseball team, the Shanghai Golden Eagles, plays in the China Baseball League.[343]
The Shanghai Cricket Club dates back to 1858 when the first recorded cricket match was played between a team of British Naval officers and a Shanghai 11. Following a 45-year dormancy after the founding of the PRC in 1949, the club was re-established in 1994 by expatriates living in the city and has since grown to over 300 members. The Shanghai cricket team played various international matches between 1866 and 1948. With cricket in the rest of China almost non-existent, for that period they were the de facto China national cricket team.[344]

Shanghai is home to many prominent Chinese professional athletes, such as basketball player Yao Ming,[342] 110 metres hurdles Liu Xiang,[345] table tennis player Wang Liqin,[346] and badminton player Wang Yihan.[347]
In 2023, athletes from Shanghai collectively won 19 gold medals at world championships and 38 gold medals at the highest-level national competitions.[348]

Shanghai is the host of several international sports events. Since 2004, it has hosted the Chinese Grand Prix, a round of the Formula One World Championship. The race is staged annually at the Shanghai International Circuit.[349] It hosted the 1000th Formula One race on 14 April 2019. In 2010, Shanghai became the host city of Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters, which raced in a street circuit in Pudong. In 2012, Shanghai began hosting 4 Hours of Shanghai as one round from the inaugural season of the FIA World Endurance Championship. The city also hosts the Shanghai Masters tennis tournament, which is part of ATP World Tour Masters 1000, as well as golf tournaments including the BMW Masters and WGC-HSBC Champions.[350]
On 21 September 2017, Shanghai hosted a National Hockey League (NHL) ice hockey exhibition game in an effort to increase fan interest for the 2017–18 NHL season.[351]
Shanghai is solidifying its status as a global hub for premier professional sports events. In 2023, Shanghai hosted a total of 118 sports events, with 190,000 participants and 1.29 million spectators, driving a consumption of CN¥3.713 billion (US$510.83 million). [352]
In 2024, the city is set to host nearly 175 domestic and international tournaments. [353] Notable events on the calendar include the Olympic Qualifier Series, the Formula 1 Chinese Grand Prix, the 2024 FIA Formula E World Championship (Shanghai), the 2024 Archery World Cup, the WDSF Grand Slam Final, and the ISU Four Continents Figure Skating Championships 2024, among others.[354]
Environment
Parks and resorts
Shanghai has an extensive public park system; by 2022, the city had 670 parks, of which 281 had free admission, and the per capita park area was 9 m2 (97 sq ft).[355] Some of the parks also have become popular tourist attractions due to their unique location, history, or architecture.

The People's Square park, located in the heart of downtown Shanghai, is especially well known for its proximity to other major landmarks in the city. Fuxing Park, located in the former French Concession, features formal French-style gardens and is surrounded by high-end bars and cafes.[356]
Zhongshan Park, in western central Shanghai, is famous for its monument of Chopin, the tallest statue dedicated to the composer in the world.[357] Built in 1914 as Jessfield Park, it once contained the campus of St. John's University, Shanghai's first international college; today, the park features sakura and peony gardens and a 150-year-old platanus,[358] and it also serves as an interchange hub in the metro system.[359]
One of Shanghai's newer parks is the Xujiahui Park, which was built in 1999, on the former grounds of the Great Chinese Rubber Works Factory and the EMI Recording Studio (now La Villa Rouge restaurant). The park has an artificial lake with a sky bridge running across the park.[360] Shanghai Botanical Garden is located 12 km (7 mi) southwest of the city center and was established in 1978. In 2011, the largest botanical garden in Shanghai—Shanghai Chen Shan Botanical Garden—opened in Songjiang District.[361]

Other notable parks in Shanghai include Lu Xun Park, Century Park, Gucun Park, Gongqing Forest Park, and Jing'an Park.
The Shanghai Disney Resort Project was approved by the government on 4 November 2009[362] and opened in 2016.[363] The $4.4 billion theme park and resort in Pudong features a castle that is the biggest among Disney's resorts.[364] More than 11 million people visited the resort in its first year of operation.[365]
Air pollution

Air pollution in Shanghai is not as severe as in many other Chinese cities, but is still considered substantial by world standards.[366] During the December 2013 Eastern China smog, air pollution rates reached between 23 and 31 times the international standard.[367][368] On 6 December 2013, levels of PM2.5 particulate matter in Shanghai rose above 600 micrograms per cubic meter and in the surrounding area, above 700 micrograms per cubic meter.[368] Levels of PM2.5 in Putuo District reached 726 micrograms per cubic meter.[369][370] As a result, the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission received orders to suspend students' outdoor activities. Authorities pulled nearly one-third of government vehicles from the roads, while much construction work was halted. Most inbound flights were canceled, and more than 50 flights at Pudong International Airport were diverted.[371]
On 23 January 2014, Yang Xiong, the mayor of Shanghai, announced that three main measures would be taken to manage the air pollution in Shanghai, along with surrounding Anhui, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang provinces.[372] The measures involved implementing the 2013 air-cleaning program, establishing a linkage mechanism with the three surrounding provinces, and improving the city's early-warning systems.[372] On 12 February 2014, China's cabinet announced that a CN¥10 billion (US$1.7 billion) fund will be set up to help companies meet the new environmental standards.[373] The effect of the policy was significant. From 2013 to 2018, more than 3,000 treatment facilities for industrial waste gases were installed, and the city's annual smoke, nitrogen oxide, and sulfur dioxide emission decreased by 65%, 54%, and 95%, respectively.[374][375]
In 2023, the Air Quality Index (AQI) of Shanghai reached a rate of 87.7%, a 0.6% increase compared to the previous year. The annual average concentration of inhalable particulate matter (PM10) was 48 microgrammes per cubic meter, while the annual average concentration of fine particulate matter was 28 microgrammes per cubic meter.[376]
Environmental protection

Public awareness of the environment is growing, and the city is investing in a number of environmental protection projects. A 16-year rehabilitation of Suzhou Creek, which runs through the city, was finished in 2012, clearing the creek of barges and factories and removing 1.3 million cubic meters of sludge.[377][378] Additionally, the government has moved almost all the factories within the city center to either the outskirts or other provinces,[379] and provided incentives for transportation companies to invest in LPG buses and taxis.
On 1 July 2019, Shanghai adopted a new garbage-classification system that sorts out waste into residual waste, kitchen waste, recyclable waste, and hazardous waste.[380] The wastes are collected by separate vehicles and sent to incineration plants, landfills, recycling centers, and hazardous-waste-disposal facilities, respectively.[381]
Media
Media in Shanghai covers newspapers, publisher, broadcast, television, and Internet, with some media having influence over the country. In regard to foreign publications in Shanghai, Hartmut Walravens of the IFLA Newspapers Section said that when the Japanese controlled Shanghai in the 1940s "it was very difficult to publish good papers – one either had to concentrate on emigration problems, or cooperate like the Chronicle."[382]
As of March 2020[update], newspapers publishing in Shanghai include:
Newspapers formerly published in Shanghai include:
- Der Ostasiatische Lloyd
- Deutsche Shanghai Zeitung
- Gelbe Post[383]
- North China Daily News
- Shanghai Evening Post & Mercury
- The Shanghai Gazette[384]
- Shanghai Jewish Chronicle
- Shanghai Herald
- The Shanghai Mercury[385]
- The Shanghai Post[386]
- Shanghai Times
- Shen Bao
- Israel's Messenger
The city's main broadcaster is Shanghai Media Group.
International relations
The city is the seat of the New Development Bank, a multilateral development bank established by the BRICS states.
Twin towns – sister cities
Shanghai is twinned with:[387]
Yokohama, Japan (1973)
Osaka, Japan (1974)
Milan, Italy (1979)
Rotterdam, Netherlands (1979)
San Francisco, United States (1979)
Zagreb, Croatia (1980)
Osaka Prefecture, Japan (1980)
Hamhung, North Korea (1982)
Metro Manila, Philippines (1983)
Karachi, Pakistan (1984)
Antwerp, Belgium (1984)
Montreal, Canada (1985)
Piraeus, Greece (1985)
Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland (1985)
Chicago, United States (1985)
Hamburg, Germany (1986)
Casablanca, Morocco (1986)
Marseille, France (1987)
São Paulo, Brazil (1988)
Saint Petersburg, Russia (1988)
Queensland, Australia (1989)
Istanbul, Turkey (1989)
Alexandria, Egypt (1992)
Haifa, Israel (1993)
Busan, South Korea (1993)
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (1994)
Port Vila, Vanuatu (1994)
Dunedin, New Zealand (1994)
Tashkent, Uzbekistan (1994)
Porto, Portugal (1995)
Aden, Yemen (1995)
Windhoek, Namibia (1995)
Santiago de Cuba, Cuba (1996)
Rosario, Argentina (1997)
Espoo, Finland (1998)
Jalisco, Mexico (1998)
Liverpool, United Kingdom (1999)
Maputo, Mozambique (1999)
Chiang Mai, Thailand (2000)
Dubai, United Arab Emirates (2000)
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (2001)
Guayaquil, Ecuador (2001)
Valparaíso, Chile (2001)
Barcelona, Spain (2001)
Oslo, Norway (2001)
Constanța, Romania (2002)
Colombo, Sri Lanka (2003)
Bratislava Region, Slovakia (2003)
Central Denmark Region, Denmark (2003)
Cork, Ireland (2005)
East Java, Indonesia (2006)
Basel-Stadt, Switzerland (2007)
Phnom Penh, Cambodia (2008)
Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France (2008)
London, United Kingdom (2009)
Salzburg, Austria (2009)
Quebec, Canada (2011)
Budapest, Hungary (2013)
Mumbai, India (2014)
Houston, United States (2015)
Bangkok, Thailand (2016)
Sofia, Bulgaria (2016)
Belgrade, Serbia (2018)
Lima, Peru (2018)
Minsk, Belarus (2019)
Tabriz, Iran (2019)[388]
Jakarta, Indonesia (2020)
Melbourne, Australia
Consulates and consulates general
As of September 2020, Shanghai hosts 71 consulates general and 5 consulates, excluding Hong Kong and Macao trade office.[389]

See also
- List of economic and technological development zones in Shanghai
- List of administrative divisions of Shanghai
- List of fiction set in Shanghai
- List of films set in Shanghai
- List of people from Shanghai
- Shanghai Detention Center
- Shanghai International Football Tournament
- Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers
- Shuping Scholarship
- Urban planning in Shanghai
Notes
- ^ /ʃæŋˈhaɪ/;[12] Chinese: 上海; pinyin: Shànghǎi, Shanghainese: zaon6 he5 [zɑ̃˩ hɛ˦] , Standard Chinese pronunciation: [ʂâŋ.xàɪ]
- ^ Traditional Chinese: 滬[17]
- ^ Traditional Chinese: 滬瀆[18]
- ^ Chinese: 華亭
- ^ The first Chinese character "魔" has three meanings according to The Standard Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese: (1) Devil. (2) Metaphor for something that harms people or evil forces. (3) Magical; unpredictable.
- ^ Chinese: 青龍鎮
- ^ Chinese: 江海關
- ^ Shanghainese romanization: longdhang; Wu Chinese pronunciation: [lòŋdɑ̃́][95]
- ^ historically "Avenue Joffre"[126]
- ^ Shanghainese romanization: Xhigawhe, Zikawei, or Siccawei; Wu Chinese pronunciation: [ʑìkᴀ̋ɦuᴇ᷆]
- ^ Chuansha County until 1992;[61] merged with Nanhui District in 2009 with oversight of the Jiuduansha shoals[127]
- ^ Baoshan County and Wusong District until 1988[61]
- ^ Original Minhang District and Shanghai County until 1992[61]
- ^ Jiading County until 1992[61]
- ^ Jinshan County until 1997
- ^ Songjiang County until 1998
- ^ Qingpu County until 1999
- ^ Fengxian County until 2001
- ^ The absorption of the separate island of Yonglongsha by Chongming in the 1970s has produced a narrow pene-enclave of Jiangsu along about 20 kilometers (12 mi) of the northern shore of the island, separately administered as Nantong's Haiyong and Qilong townships.[128]
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Further reading
- Danielson, Eric N. (2010). Discover Shanghai. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish.
- Danielson, Eric N. (2004). Shanghai and the Yangzi Delta. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish/Times Editions. ISBN 978-981-232-597-6.
- Elvin, Mark (1977). "Market Towns and Waterways: The County of Shang-hai from 1480 to 1910". In Skinner, G. William (ed.). The City in Late Imperial China. Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press. pp. 441–474. ISBN 978-0-8047-0892-0. OCLC 2883862.
- Erh, Deke; Johnston, Tess (2007). Shanghai Art Deco. Hong Kong: Old China Hand Press.
- Haarmann, Anke. Shanghai (Urban Public) Space (Berlin: Jovis, 2009). 192 pp. online review
- Horesh, Niv (2009). Shanghai's Bund and Beyond. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Johnson, Linda Cooke (1995). Shanghai: From Market Town to Treaty Port. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Johnson, Linda Cooke (1993). Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China. Albany, NY: State University of New York (SUNY). ISBN 978-0-7914-1424-8.
- Scheen, Lena (2015). Shanghai Literary Imaginings: A City in Transformation. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-8964-587-6.
- Scheen, Lena (2022). "History of Shanghai." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History 18 online
- Yan Jin. "Shanghai Studies: An evolving academic field" History Compass (October 2018) e12496 Historiography of recent scholarship. online
External links
Media related to Shanghai at Wikimedia Commons- Official website (Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine)
- ShanghaiEye – English news website of SMG
- Shanghai at Curlie
- WikiSatellite view of Shanghai at WikiMapia
Geographic data related to Shanghai at OpenStreetMap

