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Food is any substance that is consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food usually consists of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, encourage physical requirements, and support growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill specific ecological niches within specific geographical contexts.
Omnivorous humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtaining food in many different ecosystems. Humans generally use cooking to prepare food for consumption. The majority of the food energy required is supplied by the industrial food industry, which produces food through intensive agriculture and distributes it through complex food processing and food distribution systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels, which means food and agricultural systems are one of the major contributors to climate change, accounting for as much as 37% of total greenhouse gas emissions.[1]
The food system has a significant impact on a wide range of other social and political issues, including sustainability, biological diversity, economics, population growth, water supply, and food security. Food safety and security are monitored by international agencies, like the International Association for Food Protection, the World Resources Institute, the World Food Programme, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Food Information Council.
食物とは、生物に栄養とエネルギーを供給するために摂取されるあらゆる物質のことである。[ 2 ] [ 3 ]食物は生、加工、または配合されたものがあり、動物は成長、健康、または楽しみのために経口摂取する。食物は主に水、脂質、タンパク質、炭水化物から構成されている。その他の有機物質（ビタミンなど）やミネラル（塩など）も食物に含まれることがある。[ 4 ]植物、藻類、および一部の微生物は光合成によって自身の栄養素の一部を作り出す。[ 5 ]水はほぼすべての食物に含まれており、それ自体が食物と定義されている。[ 6 ]水には食物エネルギーはなく、繊維はエネルギー密度、つまり体積に対する食物エネルギーが低く、エネルギーを全く供給しないものもあるが、脂肪は最もエネルギー密度の高い成分である。[ 3 ]一部の無機物質も植物や動物の機能に不可欠である。[ 7 ]
人間の食べ物は、関連する内容物または加工方法によって、さまざまな方法で分類できます。[ 8 ]食品グループの数と構成は異なる場合があります。ほとんどのシステムには、起源と相対的な栄養機能によって説明される 4 つの基本グループが含まれています。野菜と果物、穀物とパン、乳製品、肉です。[ 9 ]食事の質を調査する研究では、食品を全粒穀物、精製穀物、野菜、果物、ナッツ、豆類、卵、乳製品、魚、赤身肉、加工肉、砂糖入り飲料に分類します。[ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]国連食糧農業機関と世界保健機関は、18 または 19 の食品分類を含むシステムを使用しており、これには、穀物とその製品、根菜、塊茎、プランテンとその製品、豆類、種子、ナッツとその製品、牛乳と乳製品、卵とその製品、魚、貝類とその製品、肉と肉製品、昆虫、幼虫とその製品、野菜とその製品、果物とその製品が含まれます。脂肪と油、菓子と砂糖、香辛料と調味料、飲料、特定の栄養用途の食品、食品添加物、複合料理、および風味豊かなスナック。（情報源は19と主張しているが、1～15と17～19の番号が付けられた18をリストしている。）[ 13 ]
特定の生態系では、食物は、底辺に一次生産者、頂点捕食者を頂点とする相互に絡み合った連鎖の網を形成します。 [ 14 ]この網の他の側面には、腐食動物（腐食性物質を食べる）と分解者（死んだ生物を分解する）が含まれます。[ 14 ]一次生産者には、日光からエネルギーを得る藻類、植物、細菌、原生生物が含まれます。[ 15 ]一次消費者は植物を食べる草食動物であり、二次消費者はそれらの草食動物を食べる肉食動物です。ほとんどの哺乳類や鳥類を含む一部の生物は、動物と植物の両方からなる食餌を持ち、雑食動物とみなされます。[ 16 ]この連鎖は、生態系内で既知の捕食者がいない動物である頂点捕食者で終わります。[ 17 ]人間は頂点捕食者とみなされます。[ 18 ]
人間は雑食動物で、野菜、果物、調理済みの肉、牛乳、卵、キノコ、海藻から栄養を得ています。[ 16 ]穀物は主食であり、世界中で他のどの種類の作物よりも多くの食料エネルギーを提供しています。[ 19 ]トウモロコシ、小麦、米は、世界の穀物生産量の 87% を占めています。[ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ]世界の作物の半分強が人間の食料として使用され (55 %)、36 % が動物飼料として、9 % がバイオ燃料として栽培されています。[ 23 ]菌類や細菌は、パン、ワイン、チーズ、ヨーグルトなどの発酵食品の製造にも使用されます。[ 24 ]
光合成では、太陽からのエネルギーが吸収され、空気中または土壌中の水と二酸化炭素を酸素とグルコースに変換するために使用されます。その後、酸素が放出され、グルコースはエネルギー貯蔵として蓄えられます。[ 25 ]光合成植物、藻類、および特定の細菌は、食物連鎖の最下層に位置することが多く、[ 26 ] [ 27 ]光合成は地球上のほぼすべての生命にとって主要なエネルギー源および食料源となっています。[ 28 ]
植物は空気、天然水、土壌からも重要な栄養素やミネラルを吸収します。 [ 29 ]炭素、酸素、水素は空気や水から吸収され、植物の生存に必要な基本的な栄養素です。[ 30 ]植物の成長のために土壌から吸収される主な栄養素は窒素、リン、カリウムの3つで、その他にもカルシウム、硫黄、マグネシウム、鉄、ホウ素、塩素、マンガン、亜鉛、銅、モリブデン、ニッケルなどの重要な栄養素があります。[ 30 ]
細菌やその他の微生物も食物連鎖の下位に位置します。それらは光合成や死んだ生物、老廃物、化学物質の分解によってエネルギーを得ます。一部の細菌は他の生物と共生関係を築き、栄養素を得ます。[ 31 ]細菌は原生動物の食料源となり、[ 32 ]原生動物は今度は小型無脊椎動物などの他の生物の食料源となります。[ 33 ]細菌を餌とする他の生物には、線虫、ウミウシ、貝類、カタツムリの一種などがあります。
海洋環境では、プランクトン（細菌、古細菌、藻類、原生動物、微細菌類を含む）[ 34 ]は、大小さまざまな水生生物にとって重要な食料源となっている。
バクテリアがいなければ、生命はほとんど存在し得ないだろう。なぜなら、バクテリアは大気中の窒素を栄養価の高いアンモニアに変換するからである。アンモニアはタンパク質、核酸、そしてほとんどのビタミンの前駆体である。窒素固定の工業プロセスであるハーバー・ボッシュ法の出現以来、世界のアンモニアの大部分は人為的に作られたものである。[ 35 ]
Plants as a food source are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts.[36] Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables.[37] Food is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from the reproductive tissue, so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit.[38][39] From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed.[40] Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to the Poaceae (grass) family[41] and pulses coming from the Fabaceae (legume) family.[42]Whole grains are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, and endosperm).[43] Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell.[40]
Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified as stone fruits (cherries and peaches), pome fruits (apples, pears), berries (blackberry, strawberry), citrus (oranges, lemon), melons (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig), tropical fruits (banana, pineapple).[40] Vegetables refer to any other part of the plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself.[44] These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce) and stem vegetables (celery and asparagus).[45][44]
The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable. Carbohydrates are mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars.[36] Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with the exception of vitamin D and vitamin B12. Minerals can also be plentiful or not. Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels of simple sugars that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a high vitamin C content.[36][40] Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting bananas) vegetables are high in starch,[46]potassium, dietary fiber, folate and vitamins and low in fat and calories.[47] Grains are more starch based[36] and nuts have a high protein, fiber, vitamin E and B content.[40] Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fiber and healthful fats, such as omega-3 fats.[48][49] Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients. Phytates can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins.[36]
Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores, with those that mostly just eat fruits known as frugivores,[50] while leaf and shoot eaters are folivores (pandas) and wood eaters termed xylophages (termites).[51]Frugivores include a diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds.[52][53][54] About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit.[55] Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients.[56]
Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of angiosperms, of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten.[57] Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted.[36]Oilseeds are pressed to produce rich oils –sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil) and sesame.[58]
Many plants and animals have coevolved in such a way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition for the animal, who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal.[59] Even seed predation can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process.[60][61] Insects are major eaters of seeds,[48] with ants being the only real seed dispersers.[62] Birds, although being major dispersers,[63] only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that is used to crack open the seed coat.[64] Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth.[65]
Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly. This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese.[66] They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all the essential amino acids that the human body needs.[67] One 4-ounce (110 g) steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein. One large egg has 7 grams of protein. A 4-ounce (110 g) serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein. And 1 cup (~240 mL) of milk has about 8 grams of protein.[67] Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium).[67]
動物が生産する食品には、乳腺から分泌される乳があり、多くの文化圏ではそのまま飲んだり、乳製品（チーズ、バターなど）に加工したりします。鳥類やその他の動物が産んだ卵は食用にされ、ミツバチは花の蜜を濃縮した蜂蜜を生産し、多くの文化圏で人気の甘味料として使われています。一部の文化圏では、ブラッドソーセージのように血を摂取したり、ソースのとろみ付けに使ったり、食糧不足の時には塩漬けにして保存したりします。また、ウサギの煮込み料理のように、血を煮込んだシチューに使う文化圏もあります。[ 68 ]
動物、特に人間は、通常、甘味、酸味、塩味、苦味、うま味の 5 種類の味覚を持っています。これらの異なる味覚は、栄養的に有益な食品と毒素を含む可能性のある食品を区別するために重要です。[ 69 ]動物が進化するにつれて、最もエネルギーを与える味は最も美味しく食べられる味となり、他の味は美味しくなくなりますが、[ 70 ]特に人間は、最初は美味しくない物質を好むようになることがあります。[ 69 ]水は生存に重要ですが、味はありません。[ 71 ]
Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar, such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides, such as sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose.[72] Sourness is caused by acids, such as vinegar. Sour foods include citrus, especially lemons and limes. Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gone rancid due to bacteria.[73] Saltiness is the taste of alkali metalions such as sodium and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions and enhances flavor. Bitter taste is a sensation considered unpleasant, caused by foods such as unsweetened dark chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit. Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats.[74] Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms.[75]
While most animals' taste buds are located in their mouths, some insects' taste receptors are located on their legs, and some fish have taste buds along their entire bodies.[76][77] Dogs, cats, and birds have relatively few taste buds (a chicken has about 30),[78] and an adult human has between 2000 and 4000,[79] while a catfish can have more than a million.[77] Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous.[78] Not all mammals share the same tastes: some rodents can taste starch, cats cannot taste sweetness, and several carnivores (including hyenas, dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans.[80]
Food is broken into nutrient components through digestive processes.[81] Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes (chewing, peristalsis) and chemical processes (the actions of digestive enzymes and microorganisms).[82][83] The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter is harder to digest. Carnivores' mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores.[84]Herbivores, however, have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants.[85][86]
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick, and 420,000 die each year, from eating contaminated food.[87][88]Diarrhea is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year. Children under five years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year.[88][89]
A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes.[90] According to the WHO and CDC, in the US alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.[91]
In Vietnam, from 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year.[92][93][94][95] In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported.[88]
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Wikisourceにある食品関連の作品
Wiktionaryにおける「food」の辞書定義