| 総人口 | |
|---|---|
| 混血(あらゆる人種)33,848,943人(2020年国勢調査)[1]米国総人口の10.21% | |
| 人口の多い地域 | |
| 主に米国南西部とフロリダ | |
| 5,760,235 [1] | |
| 5,133,738 [1] | |
| 3,552,072 [1] | |
| 1,767,463 [1] | |
| 1,144,984 [1] | |
| 関連民族 | |
| アフリカ系アメリカ人、ヒスパニック系アメリカ人、メティス系アメリカ人、ルイジアナクレオール人、ハパス人、メルンジョン人 | |
多民族アメリカ人は、混血アメリカ人とも呼ばれ、2つ以上の人種の混血の祖先を持つアメリカ人です。この用語には、文化的および社会的に1つのグループのみに自己認識している混血の祖先のアメリカ人も含まれる場合があります(ワンドロップルールを参照)。2020年の米国国勢調査では、3,380万人、つまり人口の10.2%が多民族であると自己認識していました。[2]遺伝的祖先で計算すると、より高い数値になるという証拠があります。
多民族人口は米国で最も急速に増加している人口グループであり、2010年から2020年の間に276%増加しました。 [3]この増加は主に、多民族であると自認するヒスパニック系またはラテン系アメリカ人によって推進されており、このグループは2010年の300万人から2020年には2000万人以上に増加し、多民族人口のほぼ3分の2を占めています。[4]多民族ヒスパニックのほとんどは白人と「その他の人種」の組み合わせであると自認しており、このグループは2010年から2021年の間に160万人から2400万人に増加しており、この傾向は、国勢調査局の祖先に関する記述式回答を数える方法の変更と、ヒスパニック人口の人種的多様性の拡大に起因すると考えられています。[5]
歴史的な人種制度の影響、例えば白人のヨーロッパ人入植者とアメリカ先住民の混血によって作られた制度の影響により、人々は多くの場合、育った文化の民族のみを自認したり、その民族のみに分類されたりするようになった。[6] 20世紀半ば以前は、少数民族に対する人種差別のため、多くの人々が多民族の血統を隠していた。[6]多くのアメリカ人は多民族であると考えられるかもしれないが、彼らは多くの場合、それを知らないか、文化的に多民族であると自認していない。それは、彼らがさまざまな国の祖先のさまざまな伝統をすべて保持しているのと同じである。[6]
南北戦争後の南部連合国における正式な人種差別の長い期間と、国内各地での異人種間結婚の禁止を経て、より多くの人々が公然と異人種間の結婚をしている。さらに、社会状況は変化し、多くの多民族の人々は白人として「通る」ことは社会的に有利ではないと考えている。移民の多様性により、ヒスパニック系の相当数の人口など、より多くの混血の人々が米国に流入している。1980年代以降、米国では多民族アイデンティティ運動が拡大している(ラヴィング・デイを参照)。[7]混血の起源を認めることを主張する米国人が増えたため、2000年の国勢調査では初めて、住民が複数の民族的・人種的アイデンティティをチェックして、多民族であると特定することができた。2008年、バラク・オバマが米国初の混血大統領に選出された。彼は両親の血縁を認め、アフリカ系アメリカ人であると特定している。[8]
今日、多民族の人々は国のあらゆる場所にいます。米国の多民族グループには、多くのアフリカ系アメリカ人、ヒスパニック系アメリカ人、メティス系アメリカ人、ルイジアナクレオール、ハパス、メルンジョン、および主に米国東部に見られる他のいくつかのコミュニティが含まれます。多くのネイティブアメリカンは、祖先が多民族ですが、連邦政府に認定された部族のメンバーとして完全に認識されています。
歴史
アメリカ人は、文化的に異なる様々な移民グループの多民族的子孫がほとんどで、移民グループの多くは現在では先進国となっている。人種を社会的構成概念と認めながらも、自分たちを多民族的であると考える人もいる。クレオール化、同化、統合は継続的なプロセスとなっている。20世紀半ば以降の公民権運動やその他の社会運動は、すべての民族に対して社会正義と憲法に基づく公民権の平等な施行を実現するために活動した。2000年代には、人口の5%未満が多民族的であると自認していた。多くの場合、混血の祖先は個人の家族歴の中で非常に古いもの(例えば、南北戦争以前)であるため、最近の民族的、文化的アイデンティティには影響を及ぼさない。
異人種間の関係、事実婚、結婚は植民地時代初期から、特に奴隷制度が植民地時代のアメリカでアフリカ系の人々に関連する人種的カーストとして定着する以前から行われていた。13植民地のいくつかは17世紀に、父親の人種や市民権に関係なく、 partus sequitur venttremの原則に従って、子供に母親の社会的地位を与える法律を可決した。これは、男性が子供に地位を与えるという慣習法上の前例を覆すものであり、これによりコミュニティは、父親が嫡出子であるかどうかに関係なく子供を養育することを要求できた。この変更により、白人男性は奴隷の女性を性的に利用することができるようになった。なぜなら、彼らには子供に対する責任がなかったからである。奴隷として生まれた混血の子供たちの主人であると同時に父親でもあった男性は、これらの人々を召使や労働者として使ったり、奴隷として売ったりすることができた。場合によっては、白人の父親が混血の子供たちを養い、教育費や徒弟制度の費用を支払ったり手配したりして、子供たちを解放した。これは特に、独立戦争後の 20 年間に顕著だった。(子供たちを養う習慣は、フランスやスペインの植民地ではより一般的だった。そこでは、教育を受け財産を所有するようになった自由有色人種の階級が形成された。) 他の多くの白人の父親は、混血の子供たちとその母親を奴隷として捨てた。
研究者のポール・ハイネックは、植民地時代の自由有色人種の家族のほとんどは、白人女性(自由人、年季奉公人を問わず)とアフリカ人男性(奴隷、年季奉公人、自由人を問わず)との結びつきから生まれたことを発見した。 [9]初期には、労働者階級の人々は一緒に暮らし、働いていた。彼らの子供たちは白人女性の地位のおかげで自由だった。これは、混血児のほとんどが白人の父親と黒人の母親を持つ革命後の時代のパターンとは対照的だった。[9]
18世紀、19世紀、20世紀初頭にかけて、ほとんどの州で反異人種間結婚法が制定されたが、白人の奴隷所有者やその息子、その他の有力な白人男性が奴隷の女性を妾として娼婦に迎え、混血児をもうけるのを阻止することはできなかった。カリフォルニア州とアメリカ西部のその他の地域には、ラテンアメリカ人やアジア人の居住者が多かった。これらの人々は白人との正式な関係を禁じられていた。白人の議員は1950年代まで、 ヨーロッパ系アメリカ人とアジア系アメリカ人の結婚を禁止する法律を制定していた。
アメリカ合衆国の初期の歴史

異人種間の関係は北米と米国で長い歴史があり、原住民の女性を伴侶としたヨーロッパの探検家と兵士の混血に始まった。ヨーロッパ人の入植が増えた後、貿易商や毛皮猟師は原住民部族の女性と結婚したり、関係を持ったりすることがよくあった。17世紀、深刻な労働力不足が続いたため、主にチェサピーク湾植民地の入植者はアフリカ人を労働者として輸入した。年季奉公人として、また次第に奴隷として輸入されることが増えていった。アフリカ人奴隷はヨーロッパ人入植者によってニューヨークや他の北部の港にも輸入された。この初期に、アフリカ人奴隷の中には主人によって解放された者もいた。
植民地時代、状況はより流動的であったが、年季奉公人であろうと自由人であろうと白人女性と、召使、奴隷、自由人であろうとアフリカ人男性は結婚した。女性は自由であったため、混血の子供は自由に生まれた。彼らとその子孫が、植民地時代のバージニアにおける自由有色人種の家族のほとんどを形成した。学者のポール・ハイネックは、1790年から1810年の国勢調査でノースカロライナ州の自由有色人種の80パーセントが、植民地時代のバージニアの自由人家族に遡ることができることを発見した。[10]
1789年、北アメリカで奴隷として働かされた現在のナイジェリア出身の元奴隷、オラウダ・エクィアノが自伝を出版した。彼は白人と黒人の異人種間結婚を主張した。 [11] 18世紀後半までに、アッパーサウスを訪れた人々は、白人男性による異人種間結婚の証拠として、混血奴隷の割合が高いことに気づいた。
1790 年、米国で最初の連邦人口調査が行われた。調査員は自由民を白人または「その他」に分類するよう指示された。連邦国勢調査では、1850 年まで世帯主のみが名前で特定された。ネイティブ アメリカンは「その他」に含まれていたが、後の国勢調査では、インディアン居留地に住んでいない場合は「自由有色人種」に含められた。奴隷は南北戦争と奴隷制度の廃止まで、すべての国勢調査で自由民とは別に数えられた。後の国勢調査では、アフリカ系の人々は外見によってムラート(アフリカ系に加えて目に見えるヨーロッパ系の祖先を認める) または黒人に分類された。
アメリカ独立戦争後、奴隷が解放されるにつれて、自由有色人種の数と割合は北部と南部で著しく増加した。ほとんどの北部州は奴隷制度を廃止したが、ニューヨーク州のように、完了するまでに20年以上かかった段階的な解放プログラムで廃止した州もあった。ニューヨーク州の最後の奴隷は1827年まで解放されなかった。第二次大覚醒に関連して、南部のクエーカー教徒とメソジスト教徒の説教師は奴隷所有者に奴隷を解放するよう促した。革命的な理想に導かれて、多くの人々が奴隷を解放した。中には行為によって、またあるものは遺言によって解放したため、1782年から1810年にかけて、自由有色人種の割合は南部の黒人の1%未満から10%近くにまで増加した。[12]
19世紀: アメリカ南北戦争、奴隷解放、復興、ジム・クロウ法

男性の奴隷所有者、監督者、または主人の息子と女性奴隷との数多くの関係の中で最も有名なのは、トーマス・ジェファーソン大統領と奴隷のサリー・ヘミングスの関係であろう。2012年にスミソニアン博物館とモンティセロの共同展示「モンティセロの奴隷制度:自由のパラドックス」で述べられているように、当時は未亡人だったジェファーソンは、ヘミングスを40年近く妾としていた。記録上、2人には6人の子供がいた。ヘミングスの子供のうち4人は成人まで生き残り、彼は解放したごく少数の奴隷のうち全員を解放した。2人は1822年に北部への「逃亡」を許され、2人は1826年の彼の死後、遺言によって自由を与えられた。ヘミングスの子供4人は先祖の8分の7が白人で、成人すると全員北部の州に移住した。4人のうち3人は白人社会に入り、その子孫はすべて白人とみなされている。マディソン・ヘミングスの子孫で、黒人としての自認を持ち続けた者の中には、後の世代で最終的に白人として自認し「異人種間結婚」した者もいたが、アフリカ系アメリカ人としての自認を持ち続けた者もいた。ヘミングスの子供たちにとって、外見や祖先の大多数を占める割合に鑑みて、白人として自認することは社会的に有利であった。奴隷として生まれたにもかかわらず、当時のバージニア州法ではヘミングスの子供たちは法的に白人であった。
20世紀
人種差別は20世紀にも新たな法律で制定され続けた。例えば、ワンドロップルールは、優生学や人種的純粋さの考えが広まったこともあって、バージニア州の1924年人種統合法やその他南部諸州で制定された。人々は、多くの白人が多民族の祖先を持っているという薄れゆく記憶を葬り去った。多くの家族が多民族だった。同様の法律は、例えば19世紀後半にサウスカロライナ州やバージニア州で提案されたが可決されなかった。南部諸州で黒人の参政権を剥奪することで政権を取り戻した白人民主党は、白人至上主義を復活させるため、ジム・クロウ法や人種差別を課す法律を可決した。彼らは、アフリカ系アメリカ人やその他の少数派市民の憲法上の権利を保護するための慣行の監視を認める連邦法の施行により、1960年代以降に強制的に変更されるまで、これらの法律を維持した。
1967年、アメリカ合衆国最高裁判所はラヴィング対バージニア州の裁判で、異人種間結婚禁止法は違憲であるとの判決を下した。[13]
20世紀から1989年まで、社会福祉団体は、混血児を少数派の親の人種的アイデンティティに割り当てていたが、これはハイポデセント(混血児の子孫)の社会的慣習を反映していた。[14]黒人ソーシャルワーカーは、アイデンティティに関する規制に関する裁判所の判決に影響を与えた。彼らは、混血児は社会的に黒人とみなされているため、集団に自分を同一視し、差別に対処することを学ぶために、そのように分類されるべきだと主張した。[15]
1990 年までに、国勢調査局は国勢調査に 12 を超える民族/人種のカテゴリーを含めました。これは、民族に関する社会的な考え方の変化だけでなく、1960 年代の歴史的勢力の変化と新しい移民法によって米国に居住するようになった移民の多様性を反映しています。社会の変化に伴い、より多くの市民が多民族の祖先を認めるよう圧力をかけ始めました。国勢調査局は、人々が複数の民族として自己認識できるようにデータ収集方法を変更しました。一部の民族グループは、歴史的に十分な支援を受けられなかったグループへの連邦政府の援助が国勢調査データに依存しているため、潜在的な政治的および経済的影響について懸念しています。国勢調査局によると、2002 年の時点で、アフリカ系アメリカ人の 75% は多民族の祖先を持っていました。[16]
米国では、認知されている多民族の子どもの割合が増加しています。異人種間のパートナーシップや異人種間の養子縁組も増加しています。1990年には、18~19歳の約14%、20~21歳の約12%、34~35歳の約7%が異人種間の関係を持っていました(Joyner and Kao、2005)。[17]新規結婚に占める異人種間の結婚の割合は、2010年の11%から2019年には19%に増加しました。[18]
人口統計
2022年のアメリカコミュニティ調査の推計によると、米国には複数の人種を自認する人が41,782,288人おり、人口の12.5%を占めている。「その他の人種」と単一の認識されたカテゴリーの組み合わせの回答を除くと、この数は13,658,099人、つまり人口の4.1%に減少する。[19] 2022年には、「その他の人種」の組み合わせを自認するアメリカ人のほぼ90%がヒスパニック/ラテン系であり、多民族ヒスパニック人口の90%以上、米国の多民族人口全体の半分以上を占めている。[20] 2022年の米国で最大の多民族グループは以下のとおりである。[21]

1997年、行政管理予算局(OMB)が人種カテゴリーの連邦規制を変更し、複数の回答を許可したことで、自分たちのルーツを完全に認めたいと願う多民族の人々は、ある種の勝利を収めました。その結果、2000年の米国国勢調査が変更され、参加者は利用可能な6つのカテゴリー(簡単に言うと、「白人」、「黒人またはアフリカ系アメリカ人」、「アジア人」、「アメリカインディアンまたはアラスカ先住民」 、「ハワイ先住民またはその他の太平洋諸島民」、および「その他」)から1つ以上を選択できるようになりました。詳細については、 「米国国勢調査における人種と民族」の記事を参照してください。OMBは、2003年までにすべての政府フォームで指令を義務付けました。
2000年、シンディ・ロドリゲスは新しい国勢調査に対する反応について次のように報告した。[22]
多くの主流派公民権団体にとって、この新たな国勢調査は多民族の悪夢の一部だ。何十年も人種問題を白黒はっきりした言葉で捉えてきた彼らは、多民族運動によって長年の同盟関係が崩壊し、有色人種が新たなサブグループに分裂して弱体化するのではないかと恐れている。
多民族の人たちの中には、米国社会から疎外されていると感じる人もいる。たとえば、学校や仕事に応募するとき、あるいは標準テストを受けるとき、アメリカ人は人種や民族に対応するボックスにチェックを入れるよう求められることがある。通常、約 5 つの人種の選択肢が与えられ、「1 つだけチェックしてください」という指示がある。一部の調査では「その他」のボックスが提供されているが、この選択肢はさまざまな多民族タイプの個人をグループ化する (例: ヨーロッパ系アメリカ人/アフリカ系アメリカ人はアジア系アメリカ人/ネイティブ アメリカン インディアンとグループ化される)。[引用が必要]
2000年の米国国勢調査の記入式回答のカテゴリーには、米国国勢調査の列挙された人種の枠組み内で自動的に配置するための、さまざまな記入式回答の配置を標準化するコードリストがありました。ほとんどの回答は列挙された5つの人種のいずれかに分類できますが、人種的に分類できない「混合」の見出しに分類される記入式回答もいくつかあります。これには「二人種、混合、すべて、多数、混血、多国籍、複数、複数、その他」が含まれます。[23]
1997年、ハパ問題フォーラムの理事であるグレッグ・マエダは、2000年の米国国勢調査の新しい人種分類に関する会議に出席しました。彼は、多民族のカテゴリーと、多民族の人々がすべての人種としてカウントされることに反対していました。
独立した多民族ボックスでは、混血であると自認する人が正確に数えられる機会がありません。結局のところ、私たちは混血なだけではありません。私たちはすべての人種グループの代表であり、そのように数えられるべきです。独立した多民族ボックスでは、それを調べてもその人の背景についてほとんど何も明らかになりません。[24]

2000年の国勢調査を分析したカリフォルニア州立大学ノースリッジ校のジェームズ・P・アレン氏とユージン・ターナー氏によると、混血の人のほとんどは白人の血が混じっていると自認している。また、その内訳は次の通りである。
- 白人/ネイティブアメリカンとアラスカ先住民は7,015,017人、
- 白人/黒人 737,492、
- 白人/アジア人は727,197人、
- 白人/ハワイ先住民およびその他の太平洋諸島民は125,628人。[25]
2010年には、160万人のアメリカ人が国勢調査のフォームで「黒人」と「白人」の両方をチェックしており、これは10年前の数字より134%増加している。[26]異人種間の結婚や交際、異人種間や国際養子縁組の数により、多民族家族の割合が増加している。[27]さらに、この概念がより広く受け入れられるにつれて、より多くの人々が複数の祖先を特定するようになるかもしれない。
多民族アメリカ人のアイデンティティ
政治史
米国の政治的領域とアメリカ大陸の景観における長い人種混交の歴史にもかかわらず、直接的または最近の多民族の親子関係を認める独自の社会的人種分類の提唱は 1970 年代まで始まらなかった。公民権時代と、アフリカ系アメリカ人が主にヨーロッパ系アメリカ人の施設や居住コミュニティに急速に統合された後、白人であると自認する女性が非白人男性を父とするデート、結婚、子供をもうけることが社会的に容認されるようになった。この傾向は、異人種間の結婚で生まれた子どもは、母親の人種分類に関係なく、両親の社会的人種分類を完全に継承するという政治的推進に発展した。この提唱は、1800 年代初頭から米国で実践されてきた、新生児の人種分類が母親の分類にデフォルト設定されていた慣行に対抗するもので、過去 2 世紀にわたって州ごとに異なるさまざまな分類によるものであった。一部の州では、アフリカ人の祖先の 3/4 がアフリカ人としてのアイデンティティを決定し、他の州ではより限定的であったり、限定的であったりした。 1人のアフリカ系先祖が黒人であると特定されることを意味するハイポデセント・ルールまたはワン・ドロップ・ルールは、1924年にバージニア州で採用された。このワン・ドロップ・ルールは、サウスカロライナ州、ルイジアナ州、およびクレオール人が奴隷所有者であった、またはそうであった他の州では法律として採用されなかった。白人至上主義者は、動産奴隷制の時代に事実上ワン・ドロップ・ルールを実践し、白人の男性奴隷所有者と女性奴隷によって生み出された子孫の人種分類を奴隷に委任し、男性の親子関係は認めなかった。同様に、混血の自由人を自由な黒人の男女と同じように罰し、彼らの基本的権利を否定する法律が可決された。例えば、自由黒人がフランス統治下で可能であり実際に行っていた投票権は、1803年のルイジアナ買収後、数年のうちに否定された。観察者によると、奴隷人口の約10パーセントは白人に見えたが、アフリカ人の先祖がいることを知っていた。奴隷制の終焉後、これらの人々のほとんどは単に移動するだけで白人人口の中に消えていった。 1920 年に NAACP 会長を務めたウォルター・ホワイトは、1880 年から 1920 年にかけて白人と偽装した奴隷の子孫が約 40 万人いたと報告しています。ヘレン・キャタロール編著『アメリカの奴隷制と黒人に関する裁判』全 5 巻、1935 年、および NAACP 初代会長ウォルター・ホワイトの自伝『ホワイトと呼ばれた男』を参照してください。
現代の異人種間結婚
2009年、ルイジアナ州ロバート市の治安判事キース・バードウェルは、異人種間のカップルの結婚式の司式を拒否し、連邦裁判所に略式訴訟を起こされた。ルイジアナ州における異人種間の結婚の拒否を参照。
2010年に米国で行われたすべての新婚結婚のうち約15%は、異なる人種や民族の配偶者同士の結婚であり、1980年(6.7%)の2倍以上となった。[28]
多民族家族とアイデンティティの問題
多民族の子どもが育つ家庭環境や社会環境の多様性、そして外見や出自の多様性を考えると、多民族の子どもの課題や機会について一般化することはあまり役に立ちません。シャーロット・ニタリーが1989年に書いた記事によると、混血児の親は、子どもに非白人の親の人種だけを自分と認識するように教えるか、社会的人種にまったく自分を認識させないか、両親の人種的アイデンティティを認識するかで悩むことが多いそうです。[29]
同じ多民族家族内の子どもやその親の社会的アイデンティティは、異なる場合もあれば、同じである場合もあります。 [30]多民族の子どもの中には、さまざまなところから「選択」したり、単一の人種的アイデンティティとして認識するよう圧力を感じる子もいます。また、特に文化的に同一視されている場合、1つまたは複数の民族性を放棄しないように圧力を感じる子もいます。
子供の中には、一滴の血 が混じった...
マリア・P・P・ルートは著書『愛の革命:異人種間結婚』の中で、異人種間の両親が離婚した場合、親権を持つ親が人種的アイデンティティを重視する再婚をした場合、混血の子どもが脅威となると述べている。[34]
多民族の人の中には、新しいカテゴリーを主張しようとする人もいる。例えば、アスリートのタイガー・ウッズは、自分はアフリカ系アメリカ人であるだけでなく、コーカサス人、アフリカ系アメリカ人、ネイティブアメリカン、アジア人の血統であるため「カブリナシアン」であると主張している。[35]
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チャールズ・ミンガスは、イギリス人と中国人の血を引く母親と、アフリカ系アメリカ人とスウェーデン人の血を引く父親のもとに生まれた。[39] [40]
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ジェニファー・ビールスはアイルランド系アメリカ人の母親とアフリカ系アメリカ人の父親の間に生まれた。[41]
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タイガー・ウッズは、ヨーロッパ人とアメリカ先住民の血を引くアフリカ系アメリカ人の父親と、中国人とオランダ人の血を引くタイ人の母親のもとに生まれました。
ネイティブアメリカンのアイデンティティ
2010年の国勢調査では、約300万人が自分たちの人種はネイティブアメリカン(アラスカ先住民を含む)であると回答した。[49]このうち、27%以上が民族的起源として「チェロキー」を具体的に挙げた。[50] [51]バージニア州の先住民族の多くは、ポカホンタスまたは他の「インディアンの王女」の子孫であると主張している。この現象は「チェロキー症候群」と呼ばれている。[52]米国全土で、多数の個人が、時にはチェロキーの遺産グループやインディアンの結婚式の祝福を通じて、ネイティブアメリカンとしての日和見的な民族的アイデンティティを育んでいる。[53]
ネイティブアメリカンの祖先(ネイティブアメリカンのアイデンティティとは異なる)のレベルは異なります。自己申告したアフリカ系アメリカ人のゲノムの平均ネイティブアメリカン祖先率は0.8%、ヨーロッパ系アメリカ人の平均は0.18%、ラテン系アメリカ人の平均は18.0%でした。[54] [55]
多くの部族、特に米国東部の部族は、主にヨーロッパ系の祖先を持ちながらも、明確なネイティブアメリカンのアイデンティティを持つ個人で構成されています。 [53]一例として、チェロキー族に登録されている人の75%以上は、チェロキー族の血が4分の1未満です。[56]チェロキー族の元首長ビル・ジョン・ベイカーは、32分の1がチェロキー族で、約3%に相当します。
歴史的に、非先住民政府は、言語の変更やキリスト教への改宗などを通じて、多くの先住民を植民地社会、そして後にはアメリカ社会に同化させてきた。多くの場合、このプロセスは、家族から遠く離れた特別な寄宿学校に送られた子供たちの強制的な同化を通じて行われた。白人として通用する者は、白人特権の利点があった。[53]今日、ハイパーガミーによる人種的白化の世代を経て、多くの先住民は白人アメリカ人のように白い肌をしているかもしれない。先住民は、他のどの人種グループよりも人種間異系婚姻を実践する可能性が高く、その結果、先住民のアイデンティティを主張する人々の中で先住民の血の割合はますます減少している。[57]一部の部族は、通常はインディアン血統証明書を通じて先住民の祖先の証明を提供できない部族のメンバーを登録解除する。登録解除は、先住民居留地の政治において論争の的となっている。[58] [59]
黒人とアフリカ系アメリカ人におけるネイティブアメリカンの血統と混血
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ジミ・ヘンドリックスはチェロキー族の母親のもとに生まれ、イギリス人、アフリカ系アメリカ人、アイルランド人、ドイツの血を引いている。[69] [70] [71]
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エドモニア・ルイスはミシサガ・オジブワ族、アフリカ系アメリカ人、ハイチ人の血を引いていた。 [72]
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クラウディア・マクニールはアパッチ族の母親とアフリカ系アメリカ人の父親の間に生まれた。 [73]
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デラ・リースはチェロキー族の母親とアフリカ系アメリカ人の父親の間に生まれた。[76] [77] [78]
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ジェームズ・アール・ジョーンズはインタビューの中で、両親はアフリカ系アメリカ人、アイルランド人、ネイティブアメリカンの混血であると語っている。
アメリカ先住民とアフリカ系アメリカ人の人種間関係は、アメリカの歴史の中で無視されてきた部分である。[79]アメリカ大陸におけるアフリカ人とアメリカ先住民の関係に関する最も古い記録は、1502年4月に、誘拐された最初のアフリカ人が奴隷としてイスパニョーラ島に連れてこられたときに遡る。一部は逃亡し、サントドミンゴ島の内陸のどこかで最初の黒人インディアンが生まれた。 [80]さらに、アフリカ人奴隷がヨーロッパの入植者から逃亡し、アメリカ先住民に吸収された例は、1526年にまで遡る。その年の6月、ルーカス・バスケス・デ・アイヨンは、現在のサウスカロライナ州東部のピーディー川河口近くにスペインの植民地を設立した。スペイン人の入植地はサン・ミゲル・デ・グアルダペと名付けられた。入植地の中には、100人の奴隷となったアフリカ人がいた。1526年、最初のアフリカ人奴隷が植民地から逃亡し、地元のアメリカ先住民のもとに避難した。[81]
ヨーロッパの植民者は、逃亡奴隷の返還を求める条約をネイティブアメリカンの部族と結んだ。例えば、1726年、ニューヨーク州知事はイロコイ族に対し、逃亡奴隷で彼らの仲間になった者全員を返還するという約束を強要した。この同じ約束は1764年にヒューロン族から、1765年にはデラウェア族からも引き出されたが、奴隷が返還されたという記録はない。[82]ネイティブアメリカンと結婚した、またはネイティブアメリカンの言語を話すアフリカ系アメリカ人の返還を求める広告が多数あった。ネイティブアメリカンとアフリカ人が互いに接するようになった主なきっかけは、奴隷制度だった。[83]ネイティブアメリカンは、アフリカ人の体内にはネイティブアメリカンが「偉大な薬」と考えるものがあることを知った。なぜなら、アフリカ人は、ほとんどのネイティブ人口を激減させていた旧世界の病気に対して、事実上免疫があったからである。[84]このため、多くの部族は、より強く健康な子供を産むために、2つのグループ間の結婚を奨励した。[84]
アフリカ系アメリカ人にとって、ワンドロップルールは民族的結束の重要な要素だった。アフリカ系アメリカ人は、多民族の混血や社会的/経済的階層化に関係なく、一般的に社会において共通の目的を共有していた。さらに、多くの家族の年長者が適切な系図情報を隠していたため、アフリカ系アメリカ人はネイティブアメリカンの伝統について知ることはほぼ不可能だった。[79]アフリカ系アメリカ人の系図をたどることは、特にネイティブアメリカンの子孫にとっては非常に困難なプロセスになる可能性がある。なぜなら、奴隷であったアフリカ系アメリカ人は読み書きを学ぶことを禁じられており、ネイティブアメリカンの大多数は英語を話さず、読み書きもできなかったからである。[79]
白人とヨーロッパ系アメリカ人におけるネイティブアメリカンの血統と混血
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ファウンスウェイ・バティストはチョクトー族とヨーロッパ系アメリカ人の血を引く混血のネイティブアメリカンで、南北戦争では中佐を務めた。
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ヘザー・ロックリアはラムビー族の子孫である。[89]
ネイティブアメリカンとヨーロッパ人の間の人種間関係は、植民地化の初期から始まっていた。ヨーロッパ人の影響は即時的で、広範囲かつ深刻であり、植民地化と国家成立の初期にネイティブアメリカンと接触した他のどの人種よりも強かった。[90]
初期の男性入植者の中には、ネイティブアメリカンの女性と結婚したり、非公式な関係を持った人もいた。ネイティブアメリカンとヨーロッパ人との初期の接触は緊張を伴うことが多かったが、友情、協力、親密さの瞬間もあった。[91]ヨーロッパ人の植民地では、ヨーロッパ人男性とネイティブアメリカンの女性との結婚がいくつか行われた。たとえば、1614年4月5日、現在のバージニア州に住んでいたポウハタン族の女性、ポカホンタスは、バージニア州の入植者ジェームズタウンのジョン・ロルフと結婚した。彼らの息子トーマス・ロルフは、バージニア州の先住民族の多くの子孫の祖先にあたる。その結果、この時期、差別的な法律(アフリカ系アメリカ人に対するものなど)によりネイティブアメリカンが排除されることが多かった。19世紀初頭、ルイス・クラーク探検隊の西部での通訳と案内を手伝ったネイティブアメリカンの女性、サカガウィアは、フランス系カナダ人の罠猟師、トゥーサン・シャルボノーと結婚した。
ネイティブアメリカンの間で暮らしていたヨーロッパ人の中には「ホワイトインディアン」と呼ばれた者もいた。彼らは「何年もネイティブのコミュニティで暮らし、ネイティブの言語を流暢に学び、ネイティブの会議に出席し、ネイティブの仲間と一緒に戦うことが多かった」[92]。ヨーロッパの貿易業者や罠猟師は、辺境の部族のネイティブアメリカンの女性と結婚し、家族を持つことが多かった。ネイティブアメリカンの部族とヨーロッパの貿易業者の間の政治的な理由で結婚が行われることもあった。都市に拠点を置いていた貿易業者の中には、ネイティブアメリカンの中に「田舎の妻」と呼ばれる者もいて、合法的なヨーロッパ系アメリカ人の妻と子供を都市の自宅に残していた。全員が「自然な」混血の子供を捨てたわけではない。息子を教育のためにヨーロッパ系アメリカ人の学校に送る手配をした者もいた。初期のヨーロッパ人入植者は主に男性で、ネイティブアメリカンの女性は、特に奴隷にされた場合、レイプや性的嫌がらせを受ける危険があった。[93]
Most marriages between Europeans and Native Americans were between European men and Native American women. The social identity of the children was strongly determined by the tribe's kinship system. This determined how easy it would be for the child assimilated into the tribe. Among the matrilineal tribes of the Southeast, such as the Creek and Cherokee, the mixed race children generally were accepted as and identified as Indian, as they gained their social status from their mother's clans and tribes and often grew up with their mothers and their male relatives. By contrast, among the patrilineal Omaha, for example, the child of a white man and Omaha woman was considered "white"; such mixed-race children and their mothers would be protected, but the children could formally belong to the tribe as members only if adopted by a man.
In those years, a Native American man had to get consent of the European parents to marry a white woman. When such marriages were approved, it was with the stipulation that "he can prove to support her as a white woman in a good home".[94]
In the early twentieth century in the West, "intermarried whites" were listed in a separate category on the Dawes Rolls, when members of tribes were listed and identified for allocation of lands to individual heads of households in the break-up of tribal communal lands in Indian Territory. This increased intermarriage as some white men married Native Americans to gain control of land. In the late 19th century, three European-American middle-class female teachers married Native American men they had met at Hampton Institute during the years when it ran its Indian program.[95] In the late nineteenth century, Charles Eastman, a physician of Sioux and European ancestry who trained at Boston University, married Elaine Goodale, a European-American woman from New England. They met and worked together in Dakota Territory when she was Superintendent of Indian Education and he was a doctor for the reservations. His maternal grandfather was Seth Eastman, an artist and Army officer from New England, who had married a Sioux woman and had a daughter with her while stationed at Fort Snelling in Minnesota.
Black and African-American identity
Americans with sub-Saharan African ancestry for historical reasons: slavery, partus sequitur ventrem, one-eighth law, the one-drop rule of 20th-century legislation, have frequently been classified as black (historically) or African-American, even if they have significant European-American or Native American ancestry. As slavery became a racial caste, those who were enslaved and others of any African ancestry were classified by what is termed "hypodescent" according to the lower status ethnic group. Many of majority European ancestry and appearance "married white" and assimilated into white society for its social and economic advantages, such as generations of families identified as Melungeons, now generally classified as white but demonstrated genetically to be of European and sub-Saharan African ancestry.
Sometimes people of mixed Native American and African-American descent report having had elder family members withholding pertinent genealogical information.[79] Tracing the genealogy of African-Americans can be a very difficult process, as censuses did not identify slaves by name before the American Civil War, meaning that most African Americans did not appear by name in those records. In addition, many white fathers who used slave women sexually, even those in long-term relationships like Thomas Jefferson's with Sally Hemings, did not acknowledge their mixed race slave children in records, so paternity was lost.
Colonial records of French and Spanish slave ships and sales and plantation records in all the former colonies, often have much more information about slaves, from which researchers are reconstructing slave family histories. Genealogists have begun to find plantation records, court records, land deeds and other sources to trace African-American families and individuals before 1870. As slaves were generally forbidden to learn to read and write, black families passed along oral histories, which have had great persistence. Similarly, Native Americans did not generally learn to read and write English, although some did in the nineteenth century.[79] Until 1930, census enumerators used the terms free people of color and mulatto to classify people of apparent mixed race. When those terms were dropped, as a result of the lobbying by the Southern Congressional bloc, the Census Bureau used only the binary classifications of black or white, as was typical in segregated southern states.
In the 1980s, parents of mixed race children began to organize and lobby for the addition of a more inclusive term of racial designation that would reflect the heritage of their children. When the U.S. government proposed the addition of the category of "biracial" or "multiracial" in 1988, the response from the public was mostly negative. Some African-American organizations and African-American political leaders, such as Congresswoman Diane Watson and Congressman Augustus Hawkins, were particularly vocal in their rejection of the category, as they feared the loss of political and economic power if African-Americans reduced their numbers by self-identification.[96]
Since the 1990s and 2000s, the terms mixed race, multiracial and biracial have been used more frequently in society. It is still most common in the United States (unlike some other countries with a history of slavery) for people seen as "African" in appearance to identify as or be classified solely as "Black" or "African-Americans", for cultural, social and familial reasons.
President Barack Obama is of European-American and East African ancestry; he identifies as African-American.[97] A 2007 poll, when Obama was a presidential candidate, found that Americans differed in their responses as to how they classified him: a majority of White and Hispanics classified him as biracial, but a majority of African-Americans classified him as black.[98]
A 2003 study found an average of 18.6% (±1.5%) European admixture in a population sample of 416 African-Americans from Washington, D.C.[99] Studies of other populations in other areas have found differing percentages of ethnicity.
Twenty percent of African-Americans have more than 25% European ancestry, reflecting the long history of unions between the groups. The "mostly African" group is substantially African, as 70% of African-Americans in this group have less than 15% European ancestry. The 20% of African Americans in the "mostly mixed" group (2.7% of US population) have between 25% and 50% European ancestry.[100]
The writer Sherrel W. Stewart's assertion that "most" African-Americans have significant Native American heritage,[101] is not supported by genetic researchers who have done extensive population mapping studies. The TV series on African-American ancestry, hosted by the scholar Henry Louis Gates Jr., had genetics scholars who discussed in detail the variety of ancestries among African-Americans. They noted there is popular belief in a high rate of Native American admixture that is not supported by the data that has been collected.[citation needed]
Genetic testing of direct male and female lines evaluates only direct male and female descent without accounting for many ancestors.[102] For this reason, individuals on the Gates show had fuller DNA testing.
The critic Troy Duster, writing in The Chronicle of Higher Education, thought Gates' series African American Lives should have told people more about the limitations of genetic SNP testing. He says that not all ancestry may show up in the tests, especially for those who claim part-Native American descent.[102][103] Other experts also agree.[104]
Population testing is still being done. Some Native American groups that have been sampled may not have shared the pattern of markers being searched for. Geneticists acknowledge that DNA testing cannot yet distinguish among members of differing cultural Native American nations. There is genetic evidence for three major migrations into North America, but not for more recent historic differentiation.[103] In addition, not all Native Americans have been tested, so scientists do not know for sure that Native Americans have only the genetic markers they have identified.[102][103]
Admixture
On census forms, the government depends on individuals' self-identification. Contemporary African-Americans possess varying degrees of admixture with European (and other) ancestry. They also have various degrees of Native American ancestry.[105][106] In addition to being found to have 8% Asian and 19.6% European ancestry, African-Americans, who were sampled in 2010, were found to be 72.5% African; the Asian ancestry serving as a proxy for Native-American.[107]
Many free African-American families descended from unions between white women and African men in colonial Virginia. Their free descendants migrated to the frontier of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina in the 18th and 19th centuries. There were also similar free families in Delaware and Maryland, as documented by Paul Heinegg.[108]
In addition, many Native American women turned to African-American men due to the decline in the number of Native American men due to disease and warfare.[90] Some Native American women bought African slaves but, unknown to European sellers, the women freed the African men and married them into their respective tribes.[90] If an African-American man had children by a Native American woman, their children were free because of the status of the mother.[90]
In their attempt to ensure white supremacy decades after emancipation, in the early 20th century, most southern states created laws based on the one-drop rule, defining as black persons with any known African ancestry. This was a stricter interpretation than what had prevailed in the 19th century; it ignored the many mixed families in the state and went against commonly accepted social rules of judging a person by appearance and association. Some courts called it "the traceable amount rule." Anthropologists called it an example of a hypodescent rule, meaning that racially mixed persons were assigned the status of the socially subordinate group.
Prior to the one-drop rule, different states had different laws regarding color. More importantly, social acceptance often played a bigger role in how a person was perceived and how identity was construed than any law. In frontier areas, there were fewer questions about origins. The community looked at how people performed, whether they served in the militia and voted, which were the responsibilities and signs of free citizens. When questions about racial identity arose because of inheritance issues, for instance, litigation outcomes often were based on how people were accepted by neighbors.[109]
The first year in which the U.S. Census dropped the mulatto category was 1920; that year enumerators were instructed to classify people in a binary way as white or black. This was a result of the Southern-dominated Congress convincing the Census Bureau to change its rules.[110][111]
After the Civil War, racial segregation forced African Americans to share more of a common lot in society than they might have given widely varying ancestry, educational and economic levels. The binary division altered the separate status of the traditionally free people of color in Louisiana, for instance, although they maintained a strong Louisiana Créole culture related to French culture and language, and practice of Catholicism. African Americans began to create common cause—regardless of their multiracial admixture or social and economic stratification. In 20th-century changes, during the rise of the Civil Rights and Black Power movements, the African-American community increased its own pressure for people of any portion of African descent to be claimed by the black community to add to its power.
By the 1980s, parents of mixed race children (and adults of mixed race ancestry) began to organize and lobby for the ability to show more than one ethnic category on Census and other legal forms. They refused to be put into just one category. When the U.S. government proposed the addition of the category of "biracial" or "multiracial" in 1988, the response from the general public was mostly negative. Some African-American organizations and political leaders, such as Senator Diane Watson and Representative Augustus Hawkins, were particularly vocal in their rejection of the category. They feared a loss in political and economic power if African-Americans abandoned their one category.
This reaction is characterized as "historical irony" by Reginald Daniel (2002). The African-American self-designation had been a response to the one-drop rule, but then people resisted the chance to claim their multiple heritages. At the bottom was a desire not to lose political power of the larger group. Whereas before people resisted being characterized as one group regardless of ranges of ancestry, now some of their own were trying to keep them in the same group.[96]
-
Muhammad Ali was of English, African-American and Irish descent.[115]
-
Martin Luther King Jr. was of Irish and African descent.[117][118]
-
John Mercer Langston was of English, Native American and African descent.[119]
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Oprah Winfrey is 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American and 3% East Asian.[120]
Definition of African-American
Since the late twentieth century, the number of African and Caribbean ethnic African immigrants have increased in the United States. Together with publicity about the ancestry of President Barack Obama, whose father was from Kenya, some black writers have argued that new terms are needed for recent immigrants. There is a consensus that suggests that the term African-American should refer strictly to the descendants of American Colonial Era chattel slave descendants which includes various, subsequent, Free People of Color ethnic groups who survived the Chattel Slavery Era in the United States.[121] It's been recognized that grouping together all Afrodescent ethnicities, regardless of their unique ancestral circumstances, would deny the lingering effects of slavery within the American Colonial Era chattel slave descended community.[121] A growing sentiment within the Descendants of American Colonial Era Chattel Slaves (DOS) population insists that ethnic African immigrants as well as all other Afro-descent and Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade descendants and those relegated, or self-designated, to the Black race social identity or classification recognize their own unique familial, genealogical, ancestral, social, political and cultural backgrounds.[121]
Stanley Crouch wrote in a New York Daily News piece "Obama's mother is of white U.S. stock. His father is a black Kenyan," in a column entitled "What Obama Isn't: Black Like Me." During the 2008 campaign, the mixed-race columnist David Ehrenstein of the LA Times accused white liberals of flocking to Obama because he was a "Magic Negro", a term that refers to a black person with no past who simply appears to assist the mainstream white (as cultural protagonists/drivers) agenda.[122] Ehrenstein went on to say "He's there to assuage white 'guilt' they feel over the role of slavery and racial segregation in American history."[122]
Reacting to media criticism of Michelle Obama during the 2008 presidential election, Charles Steele Jr., CEO of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference said, "Why are they attacking Michelle Obama and not really attacking, to that degree, her husband? Because he has no slave blood in him."[123] He later claimed his comment was intended to be "provocative" but declined to expand on the subject.[123] Former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice (who was famously mistaken for a "recent American immigrant" by French President Nicolas Sarkozy[124]), said "descendants of slaves did not get much of a head start, and I think you continue to see some of the effects of that." She has also rejected an immigrant designation for African-Americans and instead prefers the terms black or white.[125]
White and European-American identity
Some of the most notable[vague] families include the Van Salees,[86] Vanderbilts, Whitneys, Blacks,[126] Cheswells,[127] Newells,[128] Battises,[129] Bostons,[130] Eldings[131] of the North; the Staffords,[132] Gibsons,[133] Locklears, Pendarvises,[87] Driggers,[134][135] Galphins,[136] Fairfaxes,[137] Grinsteads (Greenstead, Grinsted and Grimsted),[138] Johnsons, Timrods, Darnalls of the South and the Picos,[139] Yturrias[140] and Bushes of the West.[141]
DNA analysis shows varied results regarding non-European ancestry in self-identified White Americans. A 2003 DNA analysis found that about 30% of self-identified White Americans have less than 90% European ancestry.[142] A 2014 study performed on data obtained from 23andme customers found that the percentage of African or American Indian ancestry among White Americans varies significantly by region, with about 5% of White Americans living in Louisiana and South Carolina having 2% or more African ancestry.[54]
Some biographical accounts include the autobiography Life on the Color Line: The True Story of a White Boy Who Discovered He Was Black by Gregory Howard Williams; One Drop: My Father's Hidden Life—A Story of Race and Family Secrets written by Bliss Broyard about her father Anatole Broyard; the documentary Colored White Boy[143] about a white man in North Carolina who discovers that he is the descendant of a white plantation owner and a raped African slave and the documentary on The Sanders Women[144] of Shreveport, Louisiana.
-
George Herriman, who was born into a mixed-race Creole family, wore a hat to conceal his hair texture, and sometimes self-identified as Greek, Turkish, or Irish. His death certificate identified him as Caucasian.[145]
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Patrick Francis Healy was born to an Irish-American plantation owner and his biracial slave. He and his siblings identified as white in their formative years and most made careers in the Catholic Church in the North.[146]
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Carol Channing was born to a white mother and a half African-American and German father. She passed for white during the height of her career and later publicly acknowledged her mixed race origins.[147][148]
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Mary Ellen Pleasant, born to a slave and the youngest son of James Pleasants, contributed to advancing the abolitionist movement.
Racial passing and ambiguity
Passing is a phenomenon most widely noted in the United States, which occurs when a person who may be literally classified as a member of one racial group (by law or frequent social convention applied to others with similar ancestry) is accepted or perceived ("passes") as a member of another.
The phenomenon known as "passing as white" is difficult to explain in other countries or to foreign students. Typical questions are: "Shouldn't Americans say that a person who is passing as white is white or nearly all white and has previously been passing as black?" or "To be consistent, shouldn't you say that someone who is one-eighth white is passing as black?" ... A person who is one-fourth or less American Indian or Korean or Filipino is not regarded as passing if he or she intermarries with and joins fully the life of the dominant community, so the minority ancestry need not be hidden... It is often suggested that the key reason for this is that the physical differences between these other groups and whites are less pronounced than the physical differences between African blacks and whites and therefore are less threatening to whites... [W]hen ancestry in one of these racial minority groups does not exceed one-fourth, a person is not defined solely as a member of that group.[149]
-
G. K. Butterfield was born to two mixed race black identified parents of Portuguese and African descent from the Azores.[150]
-
Robert Purvis was born to a part Moorish, German Jewish and Sephardic Jewish free woman of color and an English father. He identified as black and worked to serve his community.[151][152][153]
-
Imitation of Life star Fredi Washington portrayed a woman who passed in the famous film, but was against passing in her own life.[154]
-
Walter Francis White belonged to a middle-class hyperdescent African-American chattel slave descended family who remained black-identified.
-
Daniel Hale Williams was of African-American and Scots-Irish ancestry. Although members of his family passed as white, he exclusively served and identified with African-Americans.
Laws dating from 17th-century colonial America defined children of African slave mothers as taking the status of their mothers and born into slavery regardless of the race or status of the father, under partus sequitur ventrem. The association of slavery with a "race" led to slavery as a racial caste. But, most families of free people of color formed in Virginia before the American Revolution were the descendants of unions between white women and African men, who frequently worked and lived together in the looser conditions of the early colonial period.[155] While interracial marriage was later prohibited, white men frequently took sexual advantage of slave women, and numerous generations of multiracial children were born. By the late 1800s it had become common among African Americans to use passing to gain educational opportunities as did the first African-American graduate of Vassar College, Anita Florence Hemmings.[156] Some 19th-century categorization schemes defined people by proportion of African ancestry: a person whose parents were black and white was classified as mulatto, with one black grandparent and three white as quadroon, and with one black great-grandparent and the remainder white as octoroon. The latter categories remained within an overall black or colored category, but before the Civil War, in Virginia and some other states, a person of one-eighth or less black ancestry was legally white.[157] Some members of these categories passed temporarily or permanently as white.
After whites regained power in the South following Reconstruction, they established racial segregation to reassert white supremacy, followed by laws defining people with any apparent or known African ancestry as black, under the principle of hypodescent.[157]
However, since several thousand blacks have been crossing the color line each year, millions of white Americans have relatively recent African ancestors (of the last 250 years). A statistical analysis done in 1958 estimated that 21 percent of the white population had some African ancestors. The study concluded that the majority of Americans of African descent were today classified as white and not black.[158]
Hispanic and Latino American identity
A typical Latino American family may have members with a wide range of racial phenotypes, meaning a Latino couple may have children who look white and black and/or Native American and/or Asian.[159] Latino Americans have several self-identifications; most Latinos identify as "Some other race", while others identify as white and/or black and/or Native American and/or Asian.[1][2]
Latinos of darker skin tones are noted as having limited media appearance; critics and Latinos of color have accused Latin American media of overlooking dark-skinned individuals in favor of those that are of lighter complexion, blonde-haired and blue/green-eyed – especially in regards to actors and actresses on telenovelas – rather than the typical nonwhite Latin Americans.[160][161][162][163][164][165][166][167][168]
-
Harry Shum Jr. was born in Limón, Costa Rica, the son of Chinese immigrants. His mother is a native of Hong Kong and his father is from Guangzhou, China.
-
Stacey Dash is the daughter of a Mexican-American mother Linda Dash (née Lopez;[169][170] d. 2017)[171] and Dennis Dash, an African-American.[170]
-
Adrian Grenier mother is Mexican (Spanish, Indigenous) and some French.[175] His father is of English, Scottish, Irish and German ancestry.[175]
-
Chita Rivera's mother was of Scottish and Italian descent and her father was Puerto Rican.[176]
-
Rosa Salazar is of French and Peruvian descent.[177]
-
John H. Sununu was born to a Salvadoran mother of Lebanese descent and an American father of Palestinian and Lebanese descent.
-
According to DNA testing, Eva Longoria's Mexican-American ancestry consists of 70% European, 27% Asian and Indigenous and 3% African origin.[178]
-
Bruno Mars was born in Hawaii to a father of Puerto Rican and Hungarian and Ukrainian Jewish ancestry and a mother of Filipino and Spanish ancestry.[180]
Pacific Islander American identity
During the 19th century, Christian missionaries from Europe and the United States followed Western traders to the Hawaiian Islands, leading to a wave of Western migration to the Kingdom of Hawaii. Westerners in the Hawaiian Islands often intermarried with Native Hawaiian women, including Hawaiian royalty. These developments eventually led to a gradual change in the beauty standards of Native Hawaiian women to a more westernized standard, which was reinforced by the refusal of Westerners to marry dark-skinned Hawaiians.[181]
While some American Pacific Islanders continue traditional cultural endogamy, many within this population now have mixed racial ancestry, sometimes combining European, Native American, as well as East Asian ancestry. The Hawaiians originally described the mixed race descendants as hapa. The term has evolved to encompass all people of mixed Asian and/or Pacific Islander ancestry. Subsequently, many ethnic Chinese also settled on the islands and married into the Pacific Islander populations.
There are many other Pacific Islanders outside of Hawaii that do not share this common history with Hawaii and Asian populations are not the only race that Pacific Islanders mix with.
-
Princess Kaʻiulani was of Indigenous Hawaiian and Scots-American descent.[182]
-
Jason Momoa was born to a mother of Native American, Irish and German ancestry and a father of Indigenous Hawaiian ancestry.[188]
-
Lou Diamond Phillips is of Cherokee, Hawaiian, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Filipino and Scotch-Irish American ancestry.[189][190][191]
Eurasian-American identity
In its original meaning, an Amerasian is a person born in Asia to an Asian mother and a U.S. military father. Colloquially, the term has sometimes been considered synonymous with Asian-American, to describe any person of mixed American and Asian parentage, regardless of the circumstances. The term "wasian" is also common slang to describe the individuals. "Wasian" has gained popularity on online platforms like TikTok among younger audiences, where trends in the 2020s have increased the proliferation of the term.[192]
According to the United States Census Bureau, concerning multiracial families in 1990, the number of children in interracial families grew from less than one-half million in 1970 to about two million in 1990.[193]
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations the largest part white biracial population is white/American Indian and Alaskan Native, at 7,015,017; followed by white/black at 737,492; then white/Asian at 727,197; and finally white/Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander at 125,628.[25]
The U.S. Census categorizes Eurasian responses in the "some other race" section as part of the Asian race.[23] The Eurasian responses which the U.S. Census officially recognizes are Indo-European, Amerasian, and Eurasian.[23]
-
Chloe Bennet; mother is Caucasian and her father is Chinese.[194]
-
Moon Bloodgood is part Irish, Dutch, and Korean.[195][196]
-
Tia Carrere is part Spanish, Chinese, and Filipino.[197]
-
Norah Jones was born in Brooklyn, New York to an English-American mother and Indian sitar player Ravi Shankar of Bengali descent.
-
Sean Lennon is the son of Japanese multimedia artist Yoko Ono, and English and Irish descended John Lennon.[198]
-
Olivia Munn; father is of English, Irish, and German ancestry,[199] while her mother is from Vietnam.[200]
-
Jennifer Tilly is part Native American, Irish, Finnish, and Chinese.[201][202][203][204]
Afro-Asian-American identity
Chinese men entered the United States as laborers, primarily on the West Coast and in western territories. Following the Reconstruction era, as blacks set up independent farms, white planters imported Chinese laborers to satisfy their need for labor. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed and Chinese workers who chose to stay in the U.S. were unable to have their wives join them. In the South, some Chinese married into the black and mulatto communities, as generally, discrimination meant they did not take white spouses. They rapidly left working as laborers and set up groceries in small towns throughout the South. They worked to get their children educated and socially mobile.[207]
The Afro-Asian population drastically increased by the 1950s, with a number of Afro-Asians born to African American fathers and Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, or Filipino mothers due to the large number of African Americans who enrolled in the military and developed relationships with Asian women abroad. Other groups of Afro-Asians are those who are of Caribbean American descent and are considered Dougla, or of Indian or Indo-Caribbean and African or Afro-Caribbean descent.
As of the census of 2000, there were 106,782 Afro-Asian individuals in the United States.[208]
-
Ne-Yo is part African-American and Chinese.[211]
-
Sonja Sohn is part African-American and Korean.[213]
-
Jero is part African-American and Japanese.[214]
-
Tommy Pham is an American baseball player whose mother is black and whose father is of Vietnamese and African-American descent.
-
Steve Lacy was born to an African-American mother and a Filipino father.[216]
-
-
Marilyn Strickland was born in Seoul to a Korean mother and an African-American father.[217]
In fiction
The figure of the "tragic octoroon" was a stock character of abolitionist literature: a mixed-race woman raised as if a white woman in her white father's household, until his bankruptcy or death has her reduced to a menial position[218] She may even be unaware of her status before being reduced to victimization.[219] The first character of this type was the heroine of Lydia Maria Child's "The Quadroons" (1842), a short story.[219] This character allowed abolitionists to draw attention to the sexual exploitation in slavery and, unlike portrayals of the suffering of the field hands, did not allow slaveholders to retort that the sufferings of Northern mill hands were no easier. The Northern mill owner would not sell his own children into slavery.[220]
Abolitionists sometimes featured attractive, escaped mulatto slaves in their public lectures to arouse sentiments against slavery. They showed Northerners those slaves who looked like them rather than an "Other"; this technique, which is labeled White slave propaganda, collapsed the separation between peoples and made it impossible for the public to ignore the brutality of slavery.[221]
Charles W. Chesnutt, an author of the post-Civil War era, explored stereotypes in his portrayal of multiracial characters in southern society in the postwar years. Even characters who had been free and possibly educated before the war had trouble making a place for themselves in the postwar years. His stories feature mixed-race characters with complex lives. William Faulkner also portrayed the lives of mixed-race people and complex interracial families in the postwar South.
Comic book writer and filmmaker Greg Pak wrote that while white filmmakers have used multiracial characters explore themes about race and racism, many of these characters created stereotypes that Pak described were: "Wild Half-Castes", "sexually destructive antagonists explicitly or implicitly perceived as unable to control the instinctive urges of their non-white heritage" who exhibited the same racial stereotypes of their "full blood" counterparts, symbolically used by filmmakers to "[perpetuate] the association of multiraciality with sexual aberration and violence"; the "Tragic mulatto", "a typically female character who tries to pass for white but finds disaster when her non-white heritage is revealed" whose plight used by filmmakers to "to critique racism by inspiring pity"; and the "Half Breed Hero", an "empowering" stereotype whose objective of "[inspiring] identification as he actively resists white racism" is contradicted by the character being played by a white actor, reinforcing a "white liberal's dream of inclusion and authenticity than an honest depiction of a multiracial character's experiences." Pak noted that "Wild Half Caste" and "Tragic Mulatto" characters possess little to no character development and that while many multiracial characters have appeared more frequently in films without reinforcing stereotypes, white filmmakers have mostly avoided addressing their ethnicities.[222]
See also
References
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- ^ "2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country". United States census. Retrieved 2021-08-13.
- ^ Bureau, US Census. "Over Half a Million People Self-Identified as Brazilian in 2020 Census". Census.gov. Retrieved 2024-07-09.
{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help) - ^ Tavernise, Sabrina; Mzezewa, Tariro; Heyward, Giulia (2021-08-13). "Behind the Surprising Jump in Multiracial Americans, Several Theories". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-07-09.
- ^ Passel, Mark Hugo Lopez, Jens Manuel Krogstad and Jeffrey S. (2023-09-05). "Who is Hispanic?". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2024-07-09.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Gates, Jr., Henry Louis (2010). Faces of America: How 12 Extraordinary Americans Reclaimed Their Pasts. New York University Press.
- ^ Root, Multiracial Experience, pp. xv–xviii
- ^ "Obama raises profile of mixed-race Americans", San Francisco Chronicle July 21, 2008.
- ^ a b "Home Page". www.freeafricanamericans.com.
- ^ Paul Heinegg, Free African Americans in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware, 1995–2012
- ^ "Campaigners From History: Olaudah Equiano". Anti-Slavery International. 2007. Archived from the original on March 28, 2007. Retrieved June 18, 2008.
- ^ Kolchin, Peter (1993). Slavery in America, 1619–1877. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0-8090-2568-X.
- ^ PBS (May 1999). "Jefferson's Blood: Mixed Race America". WGBH Educational Foundation. Retrieved June 18, 2008.
- ^ Yuen Thompson, Beverly (2006). The Politics of Bisexual/Biracial Identity: A Study of Bisexual and Mixed Race Women of Asian/Pacific Islander Descent (PDF) (Reprint ed.). Snakegirl Press. pp. 25–26. OCLC 654851035. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
- ^ Nitardy, Charlotte (May 14, 2008). "Identity Problems in Biracial Youth". University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved July 14, 2008.
- ^ Quintana, Stephen M.; McKown, Clark, eds. (2008). Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child. John Wiley & Sons. p. 211. ISBN 978-0470189801. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
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- ^ "Interracial marriages now more common, but not without challenges". CBS News. June 13, 2021.
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- ^ a b c "Census 1990: Ancestry Codes". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on May 2, 2008. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
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- ^ a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on October 2, 2008. Retrieved November 9, 2008.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Cohn, D'Vera (April 6, 2011). "Multi-Race and the 2010 Census". Retrieved April 26, 2011.
- ^ "Multiracial Children". aacap.org. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
- ^ "The Rise of Intermarriage". Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project. February 16, 2012. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
- ^ {{quote="Wardle (1989) says that today, parents assume one of three positions as to the identity of their interracial children. Some insist that their child is 'human above all else' and that race or ethnicity is irrelevant, while others choose to raise their children with the identity of the parent of color. Another growing group of parents is insisting that the child have the ethnic, racial, cultural and genetic heritage of both parents."}}
- ^ "Thandie Newton – Actress". Mixed-Race Celebrities. Intermix. Retrieved July 14, 2008.
- ^ Leland, John; Beals, Gregory (February 1, 2008). "In Living Colors". Newsweek. Retrieved 2008-07-18.
Being multiracial can still be problematic. Most constructions of race in America revolve around a peculiar institution known as the 'one-drop rule' ... The one-drop conceit shapes both racism—creating an arbitrary 'caste'—and the collective response against it. To identify as multiracial is to challenge this logic, and consequently, to fall outside both camps.
- ^
"Many monoracials do view a multiracial identity as a choice that denies loyalty to the oppressed racial group. We can see this issue enacted currently over the debate of the U.S. census to include a multiracial category— some oppressed monoracial groups believe this category would decrease their numbers and 'benefits."
- ^ Thiphavong, Chris. "Recognizing the Legitimacy of Multiracial Individuals Through Hapa Issues Forum and the UCLA Hapa Club". UCLA Hapa Club. Archived from the original on September 5, 2006. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
Many students who called themselves 'half black/Asian/etc.' came to college in search of cultural knowledge but found themselves unwelcome in groups of peers that were 'whole' ethnicities.' (Renn, 1998) She found that as a result of this exclusion, many multiracial students expressed the need to create and maintain a self-identified multiracial community on campus. Multiracial people may identify more with each other, because "they share the experience of navigating campus life as multiracial people," (Renn, 1998) than with their component ethnic groups. Multiracial students of different ancestries have their own experiences in common.
- ^ Root, Maria P. P. (2001). Love's Revolution: Interracial Marriage. Temple University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-56639-826-8. Retrieved 2018-06-20.
Women with children, especially biracial children, have fewer chances for remarriage than childless women. And because the children of divorce tend to remain with mothers, becoming incorporated into new families when their mothers remarry, interracial children are more threatening markers of race and racial authenticity for families in which race matters.
- ^ Johnson, Kevin R. (August 2000). "Multiracialism: The Final Piece of the Puzzle". How Did You Get to Be Mexican, A White/Brown Man's Search for Identity. Retrieved July 14, 2008.
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- ^ Mingus, Charles: Beneath the Underdog: His Life as Composed by Mingus. New York, NY: Vintage, 1991.
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- ^ "PM Golding congratulates Kamala Harris-daughter of Jamaican – on appointment as California's First Woman Attorney General". Jamaican Information Service. December 2, 2010. Archived from the original on January 15, 2012. Retrieved February 2, 2011.
- ^ Hattenstone, Simon (June 12, 2010). "Who, me? Why everyone is talking about Rebecca Hall". The Guardian. London. Retrieved September 27, 2010.
- ^ Isenberg, Barbara (November 8, 1992). "MUSIC No-Risk Opera? Not Even Close Maria Ewing, one of the most celebrated sopranos in opera, leaps again into the role of Tosca, keeping alive her streak of acclaimed performances while remaining true to herself". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
- ^ McLellan, Joseph (November 15, 1990). "Article: Extra-Sensuous Perception;Soprano Maria Ewing, a Steamy 'Salome'". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 22, 2012. Retrieved February 6, 2010.
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{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help) - ^ "Why Do So Many People Claim They Have Cherokee In Their Blood? – Nerve". www.nerve.com. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
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Further reading
- Susan Graham, "Born Biracial: How One Mother Took on Race in America" (2020) Memories Press.
- G. Reginald Daniel, More Than Black?: Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order, Temple University Press (2002) ISBN 978-1-56639-909-8.
- Teja Arboleda, In the Shadow of Race: Growing Up As a Multiethnic, Multicultural, and Multiracial American (1998) ISBN 978-0-585-11477-4.
- Yo Jackson, Yolanda Kaye Jackson, Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology (2006), ISBN 978-1-4129-0948-8.
- Joel Perlmann, Mary C. Waters, The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals (2005), ISBN 978-0-87154-658-6.
External links
- The Multiracial Activist, an online activist publication
- The Association of MultiEthnic Americans, Inc., founded 1988
- Multiethnic Education Program, offering resources and strategies (including videos, publications & trainings) to support mixed-race children in educational settings.
- MAVIN Foundation Archived March 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, an organization advocating for mixed heritage people and families
- "NEAMF: The New England Alliance of Multiracial Families", an organization uniting interracial families in the Boston area, founded 1992
- "Swirl" Archived August 11, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, US-based mixed community, founded in 2000
- ProjectRACE, an organization supporting multiracial classification
- Notable Multiracial People, Kitoba
- "Hapa/Multiracial Asian Americans", Asian-Nation
- Gregory Rodriguez (2001), "Multiracial identity, a shared destiny"
- "Williams/Zogby Poll: Americans' Attitudes Changing Towards Multiracial Candidates". BBS News. December 22, 2006. Archived from the original on April 3, 2007. Retrieved September 23, 2007.
- "Interracial Marriage in the United States", Infography
