While the precipitation changes since the last glacial cycle are well established, the magnitude and timing of the changes are unclear.[16] Depending on how and where measurements and reconstructions are made, different beginning dates, ending dates, durations[3] and precipitation levels[17] have been determined for the African humid period.[3] The amounts of precipitation reconstructed from paleoclimate records and simulated by climate modelling are often inconsistent with each other;[18] in general, the simulation of the Green Sahara is considered a problem for Earth system models.[19] There is more evidence of the late phase of the AHP than its beginning.[20] Erosion of lake sediments and carbon reservoir effects make it difficult to date when they dried up.[21] Vegetation changes by themselves do not necessarily indicate precipitation changes, as changes in seasonality, plant species composition, and changes in land use also play a role in vegetation changes.[22]Isotope ratios such as the hydrogen/deuterium ratio that have been used to reconstruct past precipitation values likewise are under the influence of various physical effects, which complicates their interpretation.[23] Most records of Holocene precipitation in eastern Africa come from low altitudes.[24]
Terminology
「アフリカ湿潤期」(AHP)という用語は、2000 年にPeter B. de Menocalらによって造語されました。[ 25 ]以前の湿潤期は「アフリカ湿潤期」と呼ばれることもあり、[ 26 ]中央アフリカ地域ではいくつかの乾燥/湿潤期が定義されています。[ 27 ]一般的に、湿潤期と乾燥期の間のこのような気候変動は、それぞれ「多雨期」と「間雨期」として知られています。[ 28 ]「緑のサハラ」という用語は、AHP を説明するためによく使用されます。[ 29 ] AHP はアフリカ全体に影響を与えたわけではないため、一部の科学者は代わりに「北アフリカ湿潤期」および「北アフリカ湿潤期」を使用し、推奨しています。[ 30 ]
Other terms that have been applied to the Holocene AHP or correlative climate phases are "Holocene humid period", which also covers an analogous episode in Arabia and Asia;[31] "Early Holocene Humid Period";[32] "early to mid-Holocene humid episode";[33] "African Holocene Humid Period" (AHHP);[34] " "Holocene Pluvial";[35] "Holocene Wet Phase";[36] "Kibangien A" in Central Africa;[37] "Makalian" for the Neolithic period of northern Sudan;[38] "Nabtian Pluvial",[39] "Nabtian Wet Phase"[40] or "Nabtian period" for the 14,000–6,000 humid period over the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant;[41] "Neolithic pluvial";[42] "Neolithic Subpluvial";[36] "Neolithic wet phase";[43] "Nouakchottien" of the Western Sahara 6,500 – 4,000 years before present;[44] "Subpluvial II"[43] and "Tchadien" in the Central Sahara 14,000 – 7,500 years before present.[44] The terms "Big Dry",[45] "Léopoldvillien"[46] and Ogolien have been applied to the dry period in the Last Glacial Maximum,[47] the latter is equivalent to the "Kanemian";[48] "Kanemian dry period" refers to a dry period between 20,000 and 13,000 years before present in the Lake Chad area.[49]
Forests and wildfire activity expanded across parts of Arabia.[461] Freshwater sources in Arabia during the AHP became focus points of human activity,[462] and herding activity between mountains and lowlands occurred.[113] In addition, karstic activity took place on exposed coral reefs in the Red Sea and traces of it are still recognizable today.[463] Increased precipitation has been also invoked to explain decreased salinities in the Red Sea,[464] increased sedimentation[465] and increased river inflow, while dust input decreased.[466]Rock art depicts wildlife that existed in Arabia during the humid period.[467] The Arabian neolithic coincides with the humid period,[468] with archaeological sites such as cairns appearing with its beginning,[469] and settlement of southern Mesopotamia during the Ubaid period may coincide with the wet epoch.[470]
The humid period in Arabia did not last as long as in Africa,[471] deserts did not retreat as much[225] and precipitation may not have reached the central[472] and northern part of the peninsula[473] past Oman[460] and the Yemen Highlands;[474] northern Arabia remained somewhat drier than southern Arabia,[475]droughts were still common[476] and the land and still produced dust.[477] One study has estimated that the amount of rainfall in the Red Sea did increase to no more than 1 metre per year (39in/year).[478] Whether some former lakes in Arabia were actually marshes is contentious.[479]
In the Southern Hemisphere, at Lake Malawi, drying began later – 1,000 years before present – as did the African humid period, which there began only about 8,000 years ago.[820] Contrarily, increased water levels in Etosha Pan (Namibia) appear to relate to a southward movement of the ITCZ at the end of the AHP[841] although stalagmite growth data in Dante Cave also in Namibia has been interpreted as indicating a wetter climate during the AHP.[842] Several records indicate that 5,500 years ago, precipitation changed in an east-west dipole-like way[843] with drying in the west and moistening in the east.[844] This pattern was probably driven by shifts in atmospheric moisture transport and of rain belt width.[845]
Mechanisms
The end of the humid period appears to reflect changes in insolation during the Holocene,[110] as a progressive decrease in summer insolation reduced the insolation gradients between Earth's hemispheres.[846] However, the drying appears to have been much more abrupt than the insolation changes;[132] it is not clear whether non-linear feedbacks led to abrupt changes in climate; it is also unclear whether the process, driven by orbital changes, was abrupt.[135] Also, the Southern Hemisphere warmed, and this resulted in a southward shift of the ITCZ;[847] orbitally-driven insolation has increased over the Holocene in the Southern Hemisphere.[124]
↑ビットナー、ルーカス。ギル・ロメラ、グラシエラ。グレイディ、ダイ。ラム、ヘンリー・F.ローレンツ、エヴァ。ウェイナー、ミカエラ。マイヤー、飯能。ブロム、トビアス。グレイザー、ブルーノ。ゼック、マイケル(2021年6月16日)。 「砂糖バイオマーカーと珪藻のδ 18 O 記録に基づく、エチオピアのバレ山脈にあるアフリカ高山ガルバ・グラチャ湖の完新世の湖蒸発の歴史」。第四紀の研究。105 : 24. doi : 10.1017/qua.2021.26。
↑デヴィッド・プルドー;アスラット、アスファウォッセン。ホバーズ、エレラ。ピアソン、オズビョルン。レプロンジョン、アリス。イザベル・クレヴクール。バハイン、ジャン・ジャック。トリボロ、シャンタル; Sime、Workakalemahu Bekele (2023)、「Goda Buticha、エチオピア」、アマヌエルのベイインにて。ライト、デイビッド K.ウィルキンス、ジェイン。 Olszewski、Deborah I. (編)、Handbook of Pleistocene Archeology of Africa、Cham: Springer International Publishing、p. 342、土井:10.1007/978-3-031-20290-2_20、ISBN978-3-031-20289-6
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Further reading
Fraedrich, Klaus F. (2013). Analysis of Multistability and Abrupt Transitions – Method Studies with a Global Atmosphere-Vegetation Model Simulating the End of the African Humid Period (PhD thesis). Hamburg University Hamburg. doi:10.17617/2.1602269.
Reick, Christian (2017年9月27日).アフリカ湿潤期末期における気候と植生の相互作用シミュレーションに対する植物多様性の影響(博士論文)。ハンブルク大学。doi : 10.17617/2.2479574。