Also, molt (chiefly U.S.) and moulting/molting. The periodic replacement of feathers by shedding old feathers while producing new ones. Feathers are dead structures at maturity which are gradually abraded and need to be replaced. Adult birds moult at least once a year, although many moult twice and a few three times each year. It is generally a slow process, as birds rarely shed all their feathers at any one time; the bird must retain sufficient feathers to regulate its body temperature and repel moisture. The number and area of feathers that are shed varies. In some moulting periods, a bird may renew only the feathers on the head and body, shedding the wing and tail feathers during a later moulting period. Some species of bird become flightless during an annual "wing moult" and must seek a protected habitat with a reliable food supply during that time. Typically, a bird begins to shed some old feathers, then pin feathers grow in to replace the old feathers. As the pin feathers become full feathers, other feathers are shed. This is a cyclical process that occurs in many phases. It is usually symmetrical, with feather loss equal on each side of the body. Because feathers make up 4–12% of a bird's body weight, it takes a large amount of energy to replace them. For this reason, moults often occur immediately after the breeding season, but while food is still abundant. The plumage produced during this time is called postnuptial plumage.[292]
moult strategy
Specialized types defined: simple basic strategy; simple alternate strategy; complex basic strategy; complex alternate strategy. The pattern of moults that occurs regularly based on the season and time. There are four main moulting strategies: i) simple basic strategy, in which there is one moult per year, every year; ii) simple alternate strategy, in which there are two moults per year, every year; iii) complex basic strategy, in which there is one moult per year, except in the first year of life, where there is an additional moult; and iv) complex alternate strategy, in which there are two moults per year, except in the first year of life, where there is an additional moult.[293]
New Zealand pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae, displaying a prominent moustachial stripe
Wing types defined: elliptical; high speed; high aspect ratio; soaring. The bird's forelimbs that are the key to flight. Each wing has a central axis, composed of three limb bones: the humerus, ulna and radius. The hand, or manus, which ancestrally was composed of five digits, is reduced to three digits (digit II, III and IV or I, II, III depending on the scheme followed[454]), which serves as an anchor for the primaries, one of two groups of flight feathers responsible for the wing's airfoil shape. The other set of flight feathers, behind the carpal joint on the ulna, are called the secondaries. The remaining feathers on the wing are known as coverts, of which there are three sets. The wing sometimes has vestigial claws. In most species these are lost by the time the bird is adult (such as the highly visible ones used for active climbing by hoatzin chicks), but claws are retained into adulthood by the secretarybird, screamers, finfoots, ostriches, several swifts and numerous others, as a local trait, in a few specimens. Bird wings are generally grouped into four types: i) elliptical wings—short, rounded and having a low aspect ratio, they allow for tight maneuvering in confined spaces such as might be found in dense vegetation. They are common in forest raptors, many migratory species of passerines, and in species such as pheasants and partridges that use a rapid take-off to evade predators. ii) High speed wings—short, pointed wings that, when combined with a heavy wing loading and rapid wingbeats, provide an energetically expensive high speed, as used by the bird with the fastest wing speed, the peregrine falcon. Most ducks and auks have this type of wing but use the configuration for a different purpose, to "fly" underwater. iii) High aspect ratio wings—typified by low wing loading and being far longer than they are wide, they are used for slower flight, which may take the form of almost hovering (as used by kestrels, terns and nightjars), or in soaring and gliding flight, particularly the dynamic soaring used by seabirds, which takes advantage of wind speed variation at different altitudes (wind shear) above ocean waves to provide lift. iv) Soaring wings with deep slots—common in larger species of inland birds, such as eagles, vultures, pelicans and storks. The slots at the end of the wings, between the primaries, reduce the induced drag and wingtip vortices, while the shorter size of the wings aids in takeoff (high aspect ratio wings require a long taxi to get airborne).[455]
The distance between each of the tips of the fully extended wings.[456] The living bird species with the largest wingspan is the wandering albatross, typically ranging from 2.5 to 3.5m (8ft 2in to 11ft 6in).[457] In contrast, the living bird species with the smallest wingspan is the bee hummingbird (also the smallest bird overall) with a wingspan of just 6.6cm (2.6in).[458]
Also, yoke-toed. Also defined: heterodactylous. Descriptive of tetradactyl (four-toed) birds in which the architecture of the foot consists of two toes projecting forward and two toes projecting backward, such as in parrots, woodpeckers and cuckoos. In most birds with zygodactylous feet, the forward projecting toes are the second and third toes and the backward projecting toes are the fourth toe and hallux. However, in trogons alone, the third and fourth toes are in front, and the second and hallux are behind. This arrangement is sometimes separately designated, and termed heterodactylous.[20][459]
↑Ornithologists from the American Museum of Natural History suggested in a 2016 article published in PLOS ONE, that the use of the "biological species concept"—classifying a grouping of birds as making up a single species by their ability to breed—is outdated and should be discarded in favour of a species' model that looks to similarity and dissimilarity in characteristics such as plumage, pattern and colouring to individuate bird species. Under such a model, it is suggested that there are ±18,000 individual living bird species in the world as of 2016.[4]
↑Emus and cassowaries are an exception in that their afterfeathers are neither downy nor diminutive in relation to the vanes, but are comparable in size to them; such feathers are thus sometimes referred to as being "double plumed". The feathers of ostrich and rhea, also flightless birds, are by contrast "soft and filmy" in makeup, lacking any barbules to add the stiffness needed in working flight feathers.[7]
↑Birds that undergo a second, non-breeding season moult (third moult overall) include: ptarmigans (Lagopus) (in the summer); long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis) (in the winter); ruff (Philomachus pugnax) (in the late winter or early spring); and may occur in other members of the sandpiper (Scolopacidae) family.[31]
↑In relation to flanks being defined as under parts, in the treatise Ornithology in Laboratory and Field, the author states: "[a]lthough technically the sides of the body belong to both the upper parts and the lower parts, the imaginary line separating the two surfaces is so high on the trunk that the sides of the body are generally considered under parts only."[96]
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