
このダイオウイカの標本と目撃情報のリストは、ダイオウイカとしてよく知られているArchiteuthis属 の生物と人間との遭遇の記録を包括的に時系列にまとめたものです。漁師に捕獲されたイカ、海岸に打ち上げられたイカ、マッコウクジラや他の捕食種から回収されたイカ (全体または一部) 、海上で確実に目撃されたイカなどが含まれています。このリストには、元の記述やその後の出版物で誤ってArchiteuthis属に分類された標本も含まれています。
背景

発見の歴史
ダイオウイカの物語は古代から船乗りの間でよく語られてきたが、この動物は長い間神話上の生き物とみなされ、北欧の伝説のクラーケンと関連づけられることが多かった。[4]ダイオウイカが科学的に広く受け入れられるようになったのは、19世紀後半に動物学者が標本を入手できるようになったときで、その2年前にバハマで収集された断片的な資料から、ヤペトゥス・ステーンストラップが1857年にArchiteuthis duxと正式に命名したのが最初である(このリストの14番目)。[5] [注 2]同じ研究で、ステーンストラップは1853年にデンマークの海岸に打ち上げられた死骸から唯一残っていた嘴に基づいて、 2番目の種Architeuthis monachusも命名した(#13)。[19]巨大イカが世間に知られるようになったのは、1861年にフランスのコルベット艦アレクトン号がテネリフェ島付近を航行中に、水面で生きた動物(#18)に遭遇したときである。船長が提出した事件報告書[20]は、ジュール・ヴェルヌの目に留まり、1870年の小説『海底二万里』の中で巨大イカの描写に取り入れられたことはほぼ間違いない。[3]

ダイオウイカの存在が疑いなく確立されたのは、ニューファンドランド島沖で(#21から始まる)大量の完全な標本(死んでいるものも生きているものも含む)が発見された1870年代になってからである。[22]これらはイェール大学の動物学者アディソン・エメリー・ベリルによる一連の論文で詳細に記録されている。[23] [注 3]ニューファンドランド島で発見されたこれらの標本のうち2つは、どちらも1873年のものであり、写真に撮られたのが最も古いものであったため特に重要である。1つ目は、生きた動物が漁船を「襲った」際に切り落とされた1本の切断された触手(#29) [24]で、数週間後には2つに分かれた完全な動物(#30)である。[注 4]この後者の標本の頭と手足は、地元の牧師で随筆家、アマチュア博物学者のモーゼス・ハーベイのスポンジ風呂に掛けられているところを撮影されたことで有名である。 [29]ハーヴェイはこれら2つの重要な標本、およびその他多数の標本(最も有名なのは1877年のカタリナ標本、#42)を確保し、広く報告しました。そして、ダイオウイカが北米と英国の動物学者に知られるようになったのは、主に彼の努力のおかげでした。[30] [注5]アーキテウティスが実在の動物であると認識されたことで、巨大な触手を持つ海生生物に関する以前の報告が再評価され、そのうちのいくつかは後にダイオウイカの記録として受け入れられ、最も古いものは少なくとも17世紀にまで遡ります。[32]
告白しますが、この巨大な肢を見て計測するまでは、この標本だけで信頼できると証明できるいくつかの初期の観察の正確さに疑問を抱いていました。巨大な頭足動物の存在は、もはや未解決の問題ではありません。私は今、これまで以上に「真実は小説よりも奇なり」という格言の価値を理解しています。
19世紀後半の一時期、保存されていた主要な標本のほとんどが新種として記載されていました。[34]全部で約20の種名が付けられました。[35]しかし、命名された種を区別するための広く合意された根拠はなく、形態学的および遺伝学的データの両方が、単一の、世界中に分布する種の存在を示しており、優先権の原則に従えば、その種は最も古い利用可能な名前、Architeuthis duxで知られるはずです。[36]
ダイオウイカがなぜ海岸に打ち上げられるのかはわかっていないが、生息する深く冷たい水の分布が一時的に変化したことが原因かもしれない。海洋生物学者でダイオウイカ属の専門家であるフレデリック・アルドリッチは、ニューファンドランド島周辺の打ち上げには周期性があるのではないかと提唱し、過去のデータに基づいて大量打ち上げの平均間隔は約30年であると示唆した。アルドリッチはこの値を使用して、1964年から1966年(#169から始まる)の比較的小規模な打ち上げイベントを正しく予測した。[37]ニュージーランド周辺での標本の出現はエルニーニョ・南方振動と関連付けられており、1879~1880年(#47から始まる)と1982~1984年のクック海峡での複数の打ち上げは、南方振動指数の極端な負のピークと同時期か直後であった。[38]座礁は世界中で散発的に発生していますが、19世紀後半のニューファンドランドほど頻繁に発生したものはほとんどありません。[注 6]注目すべき例外は、2014年から2015年までの15か月間に、前例のない57の標本が日本海の日本沿岸水域で記録されたことです( # 563から始まる)。[43]
記録されているダイオウイカの標本の総数は数百に上るが、この種は依然として非常に見つけにくく、ほとんど知られていない。生きたダイオウイカを一目見ようとする試みは、「自然史で最も見つけにくい画像」[44]と評され、少なくとも1960年代から議論されてきた。[45]世紀の終わりに向けて努力は著しく強化され、 1990年代後半には数百万ドル規模の探検が数回行われたが、これらはすべて失敗に終わった。 21世紀の最初の数年間は、生きたダイオウイカの画像化において数々の進歩があり[46] 、最終的には2012年7月に遠隔カメラシステムと有人潜水艇の両方から、自然の深海生息地で生きた動物( #548と549 )の最初の記録に至りました。 [47]これらの最近の進歩と生きた動物の標本と記録の両方の数が増えているにもかかわらず、この種は一般の人々の想像の中で独特の位置を占め続けています。[48]ローパーら(2015:83)が書いたように、「自然界で、科学者と一般人のどちらにも、 Architeuthisの標本の発見ほど興奮と好奇心を刺激する出来事はほとんどありません。」
分布パターン

ヒラメ属は世界中に分布しており[49]、または亜熱帯地域にまたがって分布しており[50] 、死骸は南極を除くすべての大陸に打ち上げられることが知られている[51]。最も多くの標本が記録されているのは、ニューファンドランド周辺の北大西洋(歴史的には)、スペイン北部(最近では[52])、ノルウェー、イギリス北部、アゾレス諸島とマデイラ諸島の群島、南アフリカとナミビア沖の南大西洋、日本沖の北西太平洋(特に最近では[53])、ニュージーランド[54]とオーストラリア周辺の南西太平洋である[55]。
標本の大部分は海洋起源であり、隣接する海に広く開かれた縁海、特にタスマン海と日本海、またメキシコ湾とカリブ海などが含まれる[56] 。少数は地中海の西端から知られているが(# 383、447、498 、および550)、これらの記録は必ずしも地中海がダイオウイカの自然分布域内にあることを示しているわけではなく、標本は流入する大西洋の水によってそこに運ばれた可能性がある。[ 42 ]同様に、北海は水深が浅いため、ダイオウイカが自然に生息する可能性は低い[42](ただし、唯一知られているイギリスでの座礁である#107と113を参照)。これらは一般に赤道および高極緯度には生息していない[57](ただし、大西洋赤道域の#215と249 、ノルウェー北部の標本[58]、またはグリーンランド西部沖の北極圏の#102を参照)。
標本総数
ゲラら(2006)によると、2004年末の時点で確認されているダイオウイカの標本は592点ある。このうち、大西洋から306点、太平洋から264点、インド洋から20点、地中海から2点である。大西洋と太平洋で採集された標本の数は、さらに以下のように分類される。北東大西洋で148点、北西大西洋で126点、南東大西洋で26点、南西大西洋で6点、北東太平洋で43点、北西太平洋で28点、南東太平洋で10点、南西太平洋で183点。[59]
ゲラとゴンザレス (2009) は、記録されたダイオウイカの標本の総数は 624 であると報告した。ゲラら (2011) は、最新の数字として 677 の標本を示した (下表参照)。パクストン (2016a) は、2015 年時点での総数を約 700 とし、そのうち約460 が何らかの方法で測定されたとしている。この数は近年大幅に増加しており、2014 年から 2015 年にかけて 15 か月の間に日本海で 57 の標本が記録された ( 563 号から始まる)。[53]それでも、ダイオウイカは、特にその広い分布と大きな体を考えると、めったに遭遇できない動物であり続けている。[60]リチャード・エリスは、「マッコウクジラの胃から打ち上げられたり、捕獲されたりしたダイオウイカは、今でも神聖な祝賀行事である」と書いている。[61]


調達、保存、展示
保存されたダイオウイカの標本は、研究と展示の両方で非常に求められている。[65] 1960年代半ば、ニューファンドランドメモリアル大学の海洋生物学者でダイオウイカの専門家であるフレデリック・アルドリッチは、研究用の標本を確保する目的で「イカ部隊」を組織した。1980年代、アルドリッチは、ニューファンドランド海岸に打ち上げられた標本を「発見して確保」すれば「その価値は標本の状態による」という、人目を引く「指名手配」ポスターを配布するという手段に訴えた。 [66]アルドリッチ (1991:459) は、「そのような努力は無駄ではなかった。その間に15匹の標本または情報を確保したからだ」と書いているが、ホフ (2003:85) によると、報酬は請求されなかったという。アルドリッチの尽力により、ニューファンドランド島ロギー湾の海洋科学研究所は、初期の巨大イカの膨大なコレクションを収集した。1971年時点で、8匹の標本が所蔵されており、そのうち3匹の残骸は正面玄関の水槽に一緒に展示されていた。[67]
Guerra et al. (2011:1990) は、世界中の博物館や水族館で約30匹のダイオウイカが展示されていると推定しているが、Guerra & Segonzac (2014:118–119) は、最新のリストとして35匹(国立博物館に21匹、私立機関に14匹、下表参照)のリストを提供している。スペインのルアルカにあるカラマル・ジャイアント博物館は、これまでで最大の公開コレクション(メス4匹、オス1匹[68])を誇っていたが、博物館の約14匹の標本の多くは、2014年2月2日の嵐で破壊された。[69] 2017年2月時点で少なくとも13匹の標本が日本に展示されており、そのうち10匹は2013年以降に入手されたものである。[70]
ダイオウイカの断片的な化石が、スミソニアン博物館の巡回展「ダイオウイカを探して」の一部として展示された。この巡回展は、クライド・ローパーが企画し、2004年9月から2009年8月までの間に米国の博物館や教育機関12ヶ所を巡回した。[71]この展覧会は、 1870年代のニューファンドランド島での座礁以来、ダイオウイカと深い関わりを保ってきたイェール大学のピーボディー自然史博物館で全国巡回展の幕を開けた。現地キュレーターのエリック・ラゾ=ワセムが監督したピーボディー展の準備作業では、博物館のコレクションの中に、これまで現存することが知られていなかったダイオウイカの資料が発見された。その中には、アディソン・エメリー・ベリルの時代のオリジナルの標本も含まれていた。[72]
アーキテウティスは捕らえどころのない生き物です。世界中のさまざまな海岸に時折姿を現しますが、その威圧的で威圧的な姿を垣間見ることはほとんどできず、トロール網で引き上げてもその魅力を十分に伝えることはできません。張り子やグラスファイバーの模型で大きさや形はわかりますが、その神秘性と生命力は捉えきれていません。アーキテウティスの魂は捉えきれないかもしれません。少なくとも、どの博物館もこの素晴らしい生き物に近づくことすらできません。この生き物は、海の怪物という用語が本当に当てはまる唯一の生きた動物です。
19世紀後半、ダイオウイカは人気があり博物館でも好まれていたが、保存された標本が少なかったため、今日まで続く「実物大」の模型の長い伝統が生まれた。[74]ヴェリルが1877年にニューヨークで個人的に調査した有名なカタリナ標本(#42)に関する記述は、初期の模型の基礎となった。 [75] [注7] 1881年のポルトガルコーブの2番目の標本(#60)も、ヴェリルが模型作りを始める直前に見ていたため、おそらく参考資料として使用されたと思われる。[78]ヴェリルの設計に従って、彼の製図工ジェームズ・ヘンリー・エマートンは1883年にピーボディー博物館のために最初のダイオウイカの模型を製作しました。[79] 2番目の、ほぼ同じ模型はすぐにハーバード大学の比較動物学博物館に届けられ、3番目は1883年にロンドンで開催された国際水産博覧会のために作られました。 [80]ヴェリルとエマートンの模型の後に、ニューヨーク州ロチェスターのウォーズ自然科学研究所で製作されたカタリナ標本に基づいた6つの類似の例が続き、そのうち2つはロンドンの自然史博物館とモナコの海洋博物館に販売されました。[81]ピーボディ博物館のオリジナルのモデルは1964年頃に廃棄され、2年後に1873年のロジー湾の標本(#30)と1960年代のニューファンドランド島のいくつかの標本、特に1964年10月にコンチェ沖で発見された標本(#169 )に基づいたモデルに置き換えられました。[83]
本物のダイオウイカの標本は伝統的にアルコール溶液(特にエタノールとイソプロピルアルコール)かホルマリンで保存されてきた。最近では、これらの物質がもたらす火災や健康リスクへの懸念から[注 8] 、プロピレングリコール(#254)、グリセロール(#495)、ハイドロフルオロエーテルの ノベック7100などの代替保存液が研究されている。[84]さらに、プラスティネーションなどの方法により、本物のダイオウイカの標本を乾燥した状態で展示することが可能になった。2000年に初めてプラスティネーション処理されたダイオウイカの標本は「Wheke」(#429 )というニックネームで呼ばれ、2008年からパリの国立自然史博物館で展示されている。 2004年にはさらに2つの標本がプラスティネーション処理され、[85] 2015年に日本で発見された標本(#609 )の様々な部分も同様にプラスティネーション処理された。他のいくつかの個体は、より一般的な乾燥方法、例えばハードキュアリング(例:# 598、603 、および617)によって展示用に準備されたが、必然的に標本は大幅に縮小する。少なくとも1匹のダイオウイカは完全にアクリルに埋め込まれ、その肉は半透明になった(#632)。2005年からは、「カル」というニックネームの標本(#495 )が、3.5トンの氷のブロック(伝えられるところによると世界最大の人工氷ブロック)に包まれてメルボルン水族館で特別に展示され、数年後には通常の湿潤標本に変えられた。さらに、他の多くの標本が冷凍または冷蔵され た状態で一時的に一般公開されています(例:# 564、585、592、603、662、669、675、677、679 、および680 )。
報告されたサイズ

ダイオウイカの大きさは、長い間、一般の議論と学術研究の両方の主題となってきましたが[86]、しばしば誤って報告され、誇張されてきました。全長が18メートル(59フィート)に達するか、それを超える標本の報告は広くありますが[注9]、研究に利用できる標本が何百もあるにもかかわらず、このサイズに近い動物は近年科学的に文書化されていません。ベリル (1880a:191) が報告した55 フィート (16.76 メートル) の「シンブル ティックル標本」(#45) は、これまで記録された中で最大のダイオウイカとしてしばしば引用される。[注 10]また、カーク (1888) がArchiteuthis longimanus (# 62) として記載した 55 フィート 2 インチ (16.81 メートル) (または 57 フィート [17.37 メートル]) の標本は、奇妙なプロポーションの動物としてよく話題に上り、世界最長のものとして時々引用される。[89]現在では、このような長さは、ゴムバンドを伸ばすのと同様に、2 本の長い摂食触手が大幅に伸びたためか、または歩幅測定などの不適切な測定方法の結果である可能性が高いと考えられている。[90]
Roper & Shea (2013:114) は、 40年にわたる50体以上のダイオウイカ( Architeuthis dux ) 標本のデータセットに基づき、成熟時の平均全長 (TL) は11メートル (36フィート) で、「まれにしか見られない最大体長」は14~15メートル (46~49フィート) であるとしている。Clyde Roperが調査した約100体の標本のうち、最大のものは「体長46フィート (14メートル)」であった。[91] O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) は、死後およびリラックスした状態で測定された130体以上の標本と、マッコウクジラから回収されたくちばし(最大の完全標本で見つかったくちばしのサイズを超えない) の調査に基づき、メスの最大全長を13メートル (43フィート) としている。Steve O'Shea は、オスの最大全長を10メートル (33フィート) と推定している。[92]ユホフ(2014:242)は、南半球の記録に基づいて、この種の最大全長を11.8メートル(39フィート)としている。レメスロ(2011)は13.1メートル(43フィート)としている。マクレインら(2015)は、スペインのアストゥリアス(#480 )の12メートル(39フィート)の標本を「科学的に検証された最長」かつ「現代の査読済み文献で記録され、保存状態の良い最大の標本」としている。チャールズ・GM・パクストンは、ダイオウイカの標本の文献記録を使用して統計分析を行い、「現在のデータに基づくと、全長20メートル(66フィート)のイカが控えめに見積もられる可能性が高い」と結論付けたが、この研究は分野の専門家から激しく批判されている。[94 ]

O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) は、130 体以上の標本とマッコウクジラから回収された嘴(最大の完全な標本で見つかった嘴のサイズを超えない)の調査に基づいて、最大外套長 (ML) を 225 cm (7.38 フィート) としているが、このサイズをわずかに上回る標本の最近の科学的記録もある(オーストラリアのタスマニア沖で捕獲された ML 240 cm (7.9 フィート) のメスの#371など。ML 推定 2.15~3.06 m の#647も参照)。Remeslo (2011) と Yukhov (2014:248) は、南方海域のメスの最大外套長を 260 cm (8.5 フィート) としている。古い文献には、ML が 500 cm (16 フィート) に達するという疑わしい記録も見られる。[96]パクストン(2016a)は、カーク(1880:312)が報告したライアル湾の標本(#47)に基づいて、記録された最大MLを279cm(9.15フィート)と認めているが、この標本のグラディウス(外套の長さに近いはず)の長さがわずか190cm(6.2フィート)であったと言われているため、この記録は疑問視されている。[94]
オシェアとボルスタッド(2008年)によると、頭と腕を含み触手(標準の長さ)を除いたこの種の長さは、5メートル(16フィート)を超えることは非常にまれである。パクストン(2016a)は、ベリル(1880a:192)によって報告された標本(#46)に基づいて、9.45メートル(31.0フィート)が確実に測定された最大のSLであると考えており、10メートル(33フィート)以上の標本は「非常に可能性が高い」と考えているが、これらの結論はダイオウイカの専門家から批判されている。[94]
O'Shea (2003b) は、約 105 個の標本とマッコウクジラから回収された嘴の調査に基づいて、メスのダイオウイカの最大体重を 275 kg (606 lb) としました(これは、最大の完全な標本で見つかった嘴のサイズを超えません。最近の最も重い標本には、#491と#524が含まれます)。ダイオウイカは性的サイズ二形性があり、オスの最大体重は 150 kg (330 lb) と推定されていますが、[92]これより重い標本も時々報告されています ( 190 kg (420 lb) の標本については#412を参照)。同様に、レメスロ(2011)とユホフ(2014:248)は、南緯の記録に基づいて、メスとオスの最大体重をそれぞれ250〜260 kg(550〜570ポンド)、150 kg(330ポンド)としている。ローパーとジェレブ(2010:121)は、最大体重を500 kg(1,100ポンド)までとし、「おそらくそれ以上」としている。古い文献では、1トン(2,200ポンド)以上の体重が疑われることは珍しくない(例えば、#22、114、117を参照)。[ 97]
ダイオウイカと、その遠縁のダイオウイカ(Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni)は、現生動物の中では群を抜いて大きな目を持ち、化石記録に残る最大の目に匹敵することが知られています。[98]「ディナープレートほどの大きさ」の目(例えば、#37)に関する歴史的報告は、現代の測定によってほぼ裏付けられており、最大直径は少なくとも27cm(11インチ)、瞳孔は9cm(3.5インチ)と認められています( #248に基づく)。[98]
種の識別
間違いなく、 Architeuthisの初期の逸話的な記録には、不完全に区別されたいくつかの形態が含まれていました。さらに、Architeuthis (優れたダイオウイカ)、より小型のSthenoteuthis、そしておそらくOmmatostrephesの標本が、無差別に「ダイオウイカ」として説明されてきました。
ダイオウイカ属Architeuthisの分類は完全には解明されていない。分類学者は最大 8 種、最小 1 種を提唱しているが、ほとんどの研究者は 1種 ( A. dux )を全世界に分布する種と認識しているか、または 3 種 (大西洋のA. dux、北太平洋のA. martensi、南極海のA. sanctipauli ) を地理的に離れた種と認識している。[100]歴史的に、約 20 の種名(新しい組み合わせは数えない) と 8 つの属名がダイオウイカ科の魚類に適用されてきた (タイプ標本を参照)。[35]命名された種を区別するための遺伝学的または物理的根拠は提案されていないが[101]、北太平洋の標本は他の地域のダイオウイカで見られる最大サイズには達していないようである。[102]触手の相対的な割合と吸盤の数には地域差があるかもしれない。[103] Winkelmannら(2013)のミトゲノミクス解析は、単一の、世界中に分布する種( A. dux)の存在を支持している。[104] Förch(1998)は形態学的データに基づいて同じ結論に達した。
ダイオウイカに関する文献は、様々なイカの標本がしばしばその大きさだけに基づいてArchiteuthis属に誤って帰属されていることで、さらに混乱を招いている。学術文献だけを見ても、そのような誤認は少なくともオエゴプシド科Chiroteuthidae(誤認番号[8] — Asperoteuthis lui)、Cranchiidae(誤認番号[5]と[6] — Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni)、Ommastrephidae(誤認番号[1] — Sthenoteuthis pteropusと[2] — Dosidicus gigas)、Onychoteuthidae(誤認番号[7]、[11]、[13] — Onykia robusta)、Psychroteuthidae(誤認番号[4] —不確定種)に及び、1つの記録の科の同一性は未解決のままである([3])。[105]他にも多くの誤認が一般の報道で広まっており、その中にはMegalocranchia cf. fisheri ( #[12] ; Cranchiidae)、Thysanoteuthis rhombus ( #[10] ; Thysanoteuthidae )、Nototodarus gouldi ( #[9] ; Ommastrephidae)の卵塊などが含まれている。この状況は、他の属の大型イカを指す際に「巨大イカ」という一般名が時折使用されることでさらに混乱を招いている。 [106] [注11]
ダイオウイカの一覧
調達と先祖

このリストは、スミソニアン協会の動物学者マイケル・J・スウィーニーがまとめた「公表された報告書からのアーキテウティスの標本の記録」 [108]に概ね従っており、1999年までの記録が含まれており、その他の情報源から追加情報が引用されています(全文引用を参照)。スウィーニーのリストはほぼ完全に科学文献から引用されていますが、最近の標本の多くは、新聞や雑誌、ラジオやテレビの放送、オンラインソースなどの ニュースメディアの報告によって裏付けられています。
歴史上知られているすべての巨大イカとの遭遇のリストをまとめる以前の取り組みには、海洋作家で芸術家のリチャード・エリスによるものがあった。[109]エリスの最初のリストは、1994年の著書『海の怪物』の付録として出版されたもので、おそらく印刷物として初めて出版されたもので、本の目次には「これまでに試みられた、ダイオウイカの歴史的な目撃と座礁に関する最も完全で正確なリスト」と記されている。 [ 110]エリスの1998年の著書『巨大イカの探索』の付録として大幅に拡大された第2のリストは、1545年から1996年までの4世紀半にわたる166の項目から構成されています。[111]エリスの1998年のリストに記載されているが、スウィーニーとローパーの2001年のリストには記載されていない記録については、メインテーブルの「追加参考文献」の列の257〜265ページにエリス(1998a)への引用があります。[注12]
これらの地球規模の標本リストに加えて、イギリス諸島については Clarke & Robson (1929:156)、Rees (1950:39–40)、Collins (1998)、ノルウェーについては Sivertsen (1955) 、ニューファンドランドについては Aldrich (1991) 、日本海についてはOkiyama (1993) 、ニュージーランドについては Förch (1998:105–110) 、スペインのアストゥリアスについてはGuerra et al. (2006:258–259) 、オーストラリアのタスマニアについては [TMAG] (2007:18–21) 、北大西洋西部については Roper et al. (2015) など、地域別の編集物が多数出版されている。特定の大量出現イベントで記録されたすべての標本を網羅的に列挙した研究には、1870~1881年のニューファンドランド島に関するVerrill(1882c)の研究や、2014~2015年の日本海に関するKubodera et al.(2016)の研究がある。現在、ダイオウイカの真正な記録の数は数百に上るが、個々の標本は依然としてかなりの科学的関心を集めており、それ自体で学術論文が発表され続けている。[112]
範囲と包含基準
このリストには、物理的な標本(またはその一部)によって裏付けられている、または保存されている資料がない場合には、以下の条件のうち少なくとも 1 つが満たされているダイオウイカ( Architeuthis属)の記録が含まれています。標本は廃棄される前に専門家によって検査され、ダイオウイカであると明確に特定されている。標本の写真またはビデオ録画が撮影され、それに基づいて公認の権威によってダイオウイカ属に割り当てられている。または、情報源の信頼性や説明の真実性など、その他の理由で当時の専門家または後代の権威によって記録がダイオウイカのものとして受け入れられている。

物理的証拠と文書証拠および専門家の鑑定が欠如している巨大イカの目撃情報は、Ellis (1994a:379–384)、Ellis (1998a:257–265)、または Sweeney & Roper (2001) のリストに掲載されているものを除き、通常は除外される (例えば、#32 および106の「攻撃」を参照)。[nb 13] 特に、「海の怪物」の目撃情報は、多くの著者によって巨大イカによるものとされているが、この基準を満たしていない。[nb 14] 合成やその他の写真操作は、巨大イカに関するデマを広めるために使用されており、これらは実際のニュース イベントの記録として、架空の背景ストーリーを添えて流布されることがある。[162]このような記録も、科学的根拠のない推測による誤認と同様に除外される。[163]
非常に大きなイカに関する現存する最古の記録は、古代アリストテレス、大プリニウス[164]、そしておそらくシドンのアンティパトロス[165]の著作にまで遡る。しかし、詳細な記述や現存する化石がないため、これらをダイオウイカ属Architeuthisに確信を持って割り当てることはできず、したがってこのリストには含めていない(いずれにせよ、地中海からのダイオウイカの記録は非常にまれである)。バスク人とポルトガル人の タラ漁師は、 16世紀にはニューファンドランド島のグランドバンクスの海域でおそらくダイオウイカの死骸を観察していたが[166] 、決定的な証拠も同様に欠けている。真のダイオウイカとして識別できる最も古い標本は、一般的に17世紀から18世紀の近世のものであると考えられており、 [167]おそらく16世紀まで遡る可能性がある(#1)。[168]
孵化したばかりの幼生から成体まで、すべての発達段階が含まれています。文献には、ダイオウイカの「卵嚢」に関する逸話が1件ありますが[169]、これは実証的な証拠がないため除外されています(後にヤリイカ( Nototodarus gouldi )の卵塊であることが判明した誤認番号[9]を参照)。マッコウクジラに見られる吸盤の傷跡など、ダイオウイカの間接的な証拠は、このリストの範囲外です。
印刷物やニュース報道で 誤ってArchiteuthis属に分類された標本も含まれていますが、誤認であることが明確に強調されています。
標本リスト
記録は年代順に昇順でリストされ、それに応じて番号が付けられています。この番号は決定的なものではなく、個々の記録を参照するための便利な手段を提供するためのものです。Architeuthis 属に誤って割り当てられた標本は別々にカウントされ、その番号は角括弧で囲まれ、ピンク色で強調表示されます ( )。複数の標本全体、または必然的に複数の個体に由来する遺物(例えば、下嘴2本)を網羅する記録では、「引用資料」セルが灰色で強調表示されます( )。生きている間に写真や動画で撮影された動物(すべて21世紀のもの)は、「遭遇した動物」のセルが黄色で強調表示されています( )。記録がこれらのカテゴリの 1 つ以上に該当する場合は、陰影の組み合わせが使用されます。標本の画像が利用可能な場合は、画像にリンクするカメラ シンボル (📷) で示されます。
- 日付– 標本が最初に捕獲、発見、または観察された日付。不明な場合は、代わりに標本が最初に報告された日付が記載され、そのように記載されます。すべての時刻は現地時間です。
- 場所– 標本が発見された場所。座標と深度情報がある場合はその情報も記載します。追加情報が角括弧で示されている場合を除き、引用文献に記載されているとおりに示します。標本が発見された主要な海洋の象限は中括弧で示します (例: {NEA}、海洋セクターを参照)。
- 遭遇の性質- 標本が回収または観察された状況。引用文献に記載されているとおりに記載されていますが、「海岸に打ち上げられた」という表現には、座礁したすべての動物が含まれます。
- 識別– 標本が割り当てられた種または属レベルの分類群。引用文献に記載されているとおりに示します。標本が再識別された場合は、時系列で記載します。これらの指定は、現在ほとんどの専門家がダイオウイカの 1 種 ( Architeuthis dux)を認識しているため、主に歴史的な関心事です。標本に俗称 (「ダイオウイカ」または英語以外の同等語など)のみが付けられている場合は、代わりにその俗称が示されます。
- 引用された資料– 回収または観察された標本資料のオリジナル。「全体」には、ほぼ完全な標本がすべて含まれます。解剖学的特徴の名前は、オリジナルの情報源から引用されています (たとえば、推奨される「くちばし外套の代わりに「体」が)。標本の保存状態も、わかっている場合は示され、欠落している部分があれば列挙されます (触手、腕の先端、赤みがかった皮膚、目は、その繊細な性質や腐肉食動物の優先的な標的のため、座礁した標本で最も欠落していることが多い部分です)。
- 保存された資料– 検査後に保管され、廃棄されなかった資料 (ある場合)。情報は古い情報源から取得される可能性があり、資料は、そのように記載されていても、もはや存在しない可能性があります。
- 性別– 標本の性別と性成熟度。
- サイズと計測– 計測と個数に関するデータ。使用される略語は、古い文献にあるいくつかの例外を除き、神学における標準化された頭字語に基づいています (計測を参照)。計測は引用文献に表示されているとおりに示され、算術精度と元の単位は保持されています (メートル法の 変換は帝国単位の横に表示されます)。ただし、古い文献にある極端な長さと重量の一部は、その後信用されなくなりました。
- リポジトリ– 標本が保管されている機関(引用元に基づく。最新ではない可能性がある)。入手可能な場合は受入番号も記載します。機関の略語は、Leviton ら (1985) および Leviton と Gibbs (1988) によって定義されたものです(リポジトリを参照)。略語が不明な場合は、リポジトリの正式名を記載します。ホロタイプやシンタイプなどのタイプ標本は、太字で示します。著者が標本に固有の識別番号(例:Verrill 標本 No. 28)を付与している場合は、標本が現存するかどうかにかかわらず、この番号も記載します。
- 主な参考文献– 最も重要な情報源。通常は、特定の標本に関する広範なデータや分析を提供する情報源 (多くの場合、一次情報源)。著者名と日付を括弧で囲んだ参照形式で示し、該当する場合はページ番号も示します (角括弧内のものは、ページ番号のない作品、または元々英語以外の言語で書かれた作品の英語翻訳を指します。完全な引用を参照してください)。連続していない場合を除き、関連する範囲の最初のページのみを示します。関連する図 ("figs.") と図版 ("pls.") はすべて列挙します。
- 追加参考文献– 特定の記録に関する実質的な情報が少ないため(多くの場合、二次資料)、または簡単には入手できないか、現存していない可能性がある(古い新聞記事、個人的な書簡、テレビ放送など)ため、重要性や優先順位が低い参考文献ですが、それでも、より容易に入手できる出版物で言及されています(完全な引用を参照)。
- 注記– さまざまな情報。標本の回収とその後の取り扱いに関わった人物や船舶、標本に対して行われた解剖、保存作業、科学的分析などが含まれることが多い。動物が生きている間に記録されている場合は、これも記載される。Architeuthis属に属さない資料と一般公開されている標本は、両方とも太字で強調表示されています (それぞれ「Architeuthid 以外」と「一般公開中」)。ただし、後者の情報は最新のものではない可能性があります。
このページおよび後続のリストに記載されているダイオウイカの記録の総数は714ですが、記録によっては複数の標本 (灰色で表示) が含まれるため、カバーされている個体数はさらに多くなります (追加数は 250 を超えます)。さらに、13 件の記録はダイオウイカと誤認された標本 (ピンクで表示) に関連しています。
タイプ標本
以下の表は、 Architeuthis属に関連する名目上の種レベルの分類群と、それに対応するタイプ標本、タイプ産地、タイプ保管庫の一覧です。[285]二名法名は種小名のアルファベット順に並べられ、元の組み合わせで提示されています。
略語
ダイオウイカ一覧表では以下の略語が使用されています。
海洋セクター

メインの表で使用されている海洋セクターは、Sweeney & Roper (2001) に従っています。大西洋は赤道と西経 30 度でセクターに分割され、太平洋は赤道と 180 度で分割され、インド洋は東経 20 度から東経 115 度の範囲として定義されています (北極海と南極海は区別されていません)。地中海で記録された少数の標本を収容するために、追加のカテゴリが作成されました。
- NEA、北東大西洋
- NWA、北西大西洋
- SEA、南東大西洋
- SWA、南西大西洋
- NEP、北東太平洋
- NWP、北西太平洋
- SEP、南東太平洋
- SWP、南西太平洋
- NIO、北インド洋
- SIO、南インド洋
- MED、地中海
測定



計測や計数に用いられる略語は、Sweeney & Roper (2001) に従っており、主に Roper & Voss (1983) によって定義された、科学における標準化された頭字語に基づいていますが、古い参考文献に見られるいくつかの例外もあります。Sweeney & Roper (2001) に従って、より一般的な TL (通常は全長、ここでは触手長) と SL (通常は標準長、ここでは精包長) の代わりに、やや非標準的な EL (「全体」の長さ) と WL (「全体」の長さ) がそれぞれ使用されています。
- AC、腕の周囲(AC(I)、AC(II)、AC(III)、AC(IV)は特定の腕のペアの測定値を指します)
- AD、アーム直径(AD(I)、AD(II)、AD(III)、AD(IV)は特定のアームペアの測定値を指します)
- AF、腕の式
- AL、腕の長さ(AL(I)、AL(II)、AL(III)、AL(IV)は特定の腕のペアの測定値を指します)
- ASC、腕の吸盤数
- ASD、腕吸盤直径
- BAC、頬粘膜周囲径
- BAL、頬部装置の長さ
- BC、体周(特に指定がない限り、マントルの最大周長を意味すると仮定)
- BD、体直径(マントルの最大直径を意味すると仮定)
- BL、体長(頭の長さは別々に与えられることが多いため、通常は外套の長さに等しい)
- CaL、手根の長さ
- CL、クラブの長さ(通常は触手の先端の拡張部分を指します)
- CSC、クラブ・サッカ・カウント
- CSD、クラブサッカー直径(通常は最大)[通常はLSDに相当]
- CW、クラブ幅
- DC、指棍の長さ
- EC、卵数
- ED、卵子の直径
- EL、「全体の」長さ(触手の先端、しばしば伸ばされた状態から尾の後端まで。WL とは対照的に、腕の先端から尾の後端まで測定)
- EyD、眼の直径
- EyOD、眼窩直径
- FL、フィンの長さ
- FuCL、漏斗軟骨の長さ
- FuCW、漏斗軟骨幅
- FuD、漏斗開口部直径
- FuL、漏斗の長さ
- FW、フィン幅
- GiL、鰓長
- GL、グラディウス(ペン)の長さ
- GW、グラディウス(ペン)幅
- G(W)、日次成長率(%)
- HC、頭囲
- HeL、交叉子節の長さ
- HL、頭の長さ(ほとんどの場合、腕の付け根からマントルの端まで)
- HW、ヘッド幅
- LAL、最長腕の長さ
- LRL 、嘴の下吻側の長さ
- LSD、最大吸盤直径(触手棍上)[通常はCSDに相当]
- MaL、手の長さ
- ML、背側外套膜長(特に明記されている場合にのみ使用)
- MT、マントルの厚さ
- MW、最大マントル幅(特に明記されている場合にのみ使用)
- NGL、ニダムール腺の長さ
- PL、ペニスの長さ
- RaL、歯舌長
- RaW、歯舌幅
- RL、花軸長
- RW、花軸幅
- SInc 、スタット石の増分数
- SL、精包長
- SoA、腕の精包
- SSD、茎の吸芽の直径
- SSL、精包嚢の長さ
- TaL、尾の長さ
- TC、触手の周囲(ほとんどの場合、触手の柄の周囲)
- TCL、触手棍の長さ
- TD、触手の直径(ほとんどの場合、触手の柄の直径)
- TL、触手の長さ
- TSC、触手吸盤数(棍棒と柄を合わせた数)
- TSD、触手吸盤直径(通常最大)
- URL、嘴の上部吻側の長さ
- VML、腹側外套長
- WL、「全体」の長さ(損傷していることが多い腕の端から尾の後端まで。EL とは対照的に、触手の端から尾の後端まで測定)
- WT、重量
リポジトリ

機関の略語は Sweeney & Roper (2001) に従っており、主に Leviton et al. (1985)、Leviton & Gibbs (1988)、および Sabaj (2016) によって定義されたものです。略語が不明な場合は、リポジトリの完全な名前が記載されています。
- AMNH、アメリカ自然史博物館、ニューヨーク市、ニューヨーク州、アメリカ合衆国
- AMS、オーストラリア博物館、シドニー、ニューサウスウェールズ州、オーストラリア
- BAMZ、バミューダ水族館、博物館、動物園、フラッツビレッジ、バミューダ
- BMNH、自然史博物館、クロムウェル ロード、ロンドン、イギリス (旧大英博物館 (自然史))
- CEPESMA、Museo-Aula del Mar、Coordinadora para el Estudio y la Protección de las Especies Marinas、ルアルカ、スペイン
- EI、エセックス研究所、マサチューセッツ州セーラム、米国
- FOSJ、水産海洋省、セントジョンズ、ニューファンドランド、カナダ
- ICM、科学研究所、バルセロナ、スペイン
- MCNOPM、プエルト マドリン自然科学博物館 (自然科学海洋博物館)、プエルト マドリン、アルゼンチン
- MHNLR、国立自然史博物館、ラ ロシェル、フランス
- MHNN、国立自然史博物館(バルラ美術館)、ニース、フランス
- MMF、フンシャル市立博物館、フンシャル、マデイラ
- MNHN、国立自然史博物館、パリ、フランス
- MOM、海洋博物館、モナコ
- MUDB 、メモリアル大学生物学部、ニューファンドランド、カナダ
- NIWA、ニュージーランド、ウェリントンの国立水・大気研究所
- NMI、アイルランド国立博物館 – 自然史、ダブリン、アイルランド
- NMML、国立海洋哺乳類研究所、アラスカ水産科学センター、ワシントン州シアトル、アメリカ合衆国
- NMNH、スミソニアン国立自然史博物館、ワシントン、コロンビア特別区、アメリカ合衆国
- NMNZ、ニュージーランド博物館 テ・パパ・トンガレワ、ウェリントン、ニュージーランド (旧コロニアル博物館、ドミニオン博物館)
- NMSJ、ニューファンドランド博物館、セントジョンズ、ニューファンドランド、カナダ
- NMSZ、スコットランド国立博物館、動物学部門、スコットランド、エディンバラ(旧スコットランド王立博物館、旧エディンバラ王立スコットランド博物館)
- NMV、ビクトリア博物館、メルボルン、ビクトリア州、オーストラリア (旧ビクトリア国立博物館)
- NSMC、ノバスコシア博物館、ハリファックス、カナダ
- PASS、ピーボディ科学アカデミー、マサチューセッツ州セーラム、アメリカ合衆国(現在はセーラムのピーボディ博物館に所蔵?)
- RMNH、ナチュラリス生物多様性センター、ライデン、オランダ
- RSMAS、ローゼンスティール海洋・大気・地球科学学校、フロリダ州マイアミ、米国(= UMML、マイアミ大学海洋研究所)
- SAM、イジコ南アフリカ博物館、ケープタウン、南アフリカ
- SAMA、南オーストラリア博物館、ノーステラス、アデレード、オーストラリア
- SBMNH、サンタバーバラ自然史博物館、カリフォルニア州サンタバーバラ、アメリカ合衆国
- SMNH、スウェーデン自然史博物館、スウェーデン、ストックホルム
- TMAG、タスマニア博物館・美術館、ホバート、タスマニア、オーストラリア
- VSM、NTNU 自然史考古学博物館、トロンヘイム、ノルウェー (旧 Det Kgl. Norske Videnskabers Selskab Museet)
- YPM、ピーボディ自然史博物館、イェール大学、ニューヘブン、コネチカット州、アメリカ合衆国
- ZMB、Zoologisches Museum、ベルリン自然科学博物館、フンボルト大学、ベルリン、ドイツ
- ZMMGU、モスクワ国立大学動物学博物館、モスクワ、ロシア
- ZMUB、ベルゲン大学、ベルゲン、ノルウェー
- ZMUC、コベンハウン大学、動物園博物館、コペンハーゲン、デンマーク
標本画像
以下の画像は、20 世紀以前のダイオウイカの標本と目撃例に関するものです。各画像の下の番号は、ダイオウイカ一覧表に記載されている番号に対応しており、その中の関連記録にリンクされています。標本が最初に記録された日付も示されています (全体を通じて、リトルエンディアンの日/月/年の日付形式が使用されています)。
-
#1 (1546年頃)
ヤペトゥス・ステーンストルプによる、一般的なイカ(中央、触手は解剖学的に考えられない位置にある) と「エーレスンドの海の僧侶」を描いた16世紀の2枚の絵 (左はギヨーム・ロンドレの絵 (1554:492、図)、右はピエール・ベロンの絵 (1553:39、図)) との比較 (ステーンストルプ、1855a:83、図)。ステーンストルプの複製は16世紀のオリジナルと多少異なることが指摘されている。[298] -
#1 (1546年頃)
16世紀の「エーレスンドの海の僧侶」の描写3点。おそらくは巨大イカかエンジェルシャーク( Squatina squatina ) と思われる。左から右へ: シュテファン・ハマー (1546:[1]、図)、コンラート・リュコステネス(1557:609、図)、ヨハネス・スルペリウス (1572:105、図) の作品より。パクストン&ホランド (2005:41、図1) 所蔵。 -
#1 (1546年頃)アムステルダム大学に保管されているいわゆるゲスナーアルバムに収められた、匿名の画家による海の僧侶の
水彩画。これらのイラストは、フェリックス・プラッターが収集したもので、コンラート・ゲスナーの百科事典『動物史』の木版画の基礎として使われました。これは、すべての既知の動物種を記述しようとした最初の近代動物学の著作です (そこに掲載されている海の僧侶の描写については、ゲスナー、1558:519、図を参照)。 -
#1 (1546年頃)
海の僧侶(#1; 左)と海の司教(後者は巨大イカをモチーフにしていると考える者もいる[299] )の木版画。1669年に発行され、コンラッド・ゲスナーの1558年のオリジナル(ロンデレのオリジナル)に基づいている。 -
#3 (1673 年 10 月 15 日頃) 1673 年 10 月 15 日頃、アイルランドのディングル
で座礁した巨大イカを取り上げた新聞(フック他、1674 年頃)。スティーブ・オシェイは、描かれた動物は「どのイカとも似ていないが、おそらくイシダイ科よりもイシダイ科に近いだろう」とコメントしている。[300] -
#13 (?/12/1853)
タイプ標本のArchiteuthis monachus (中央) とその他の小型イカ類の上下のくちばし: Gonatus fabricii (上)、Sthenoteuthis pteropus (中)、Loligo forbesii (下) (Steenstrup、1898:pl. 1) -
#13 (?/12/1853)
同じ標本の別の画像。損傷部分がテープで補修され、縫合糸で修復されている様子がわかる (元のラベルとくちばしの断片も参照) -
#14 (1855 年 11 月 5 日) 1855 年 11 月 5 日にバハマ沖で採集されたArchiteuthis dux
のタイプ標本の腕の断片と付属の吸盤(Steenstrup、1898:pl. 3) -
#14 (1855 年 5 月 11 日)同じ標本の
グラディウス(内部殻の残骸) (Steenstrup、1898:pl. 4) -
#14 (1855 年 5 月 11 日) Architeuthis dux
タイプの材料が入った瓶のクローズアップ(別のビューを参照) -
#14 (1855 年 5 月 11 日) Architeuthis dux
ホロタイプの腕の断片(吸盤の 1 つの詳細も参照) -
#16 (≤1860) Loligo (後のArchiteuthis ) hartingiiのタイプ標本の
嘴とそれに伴う頬筋、歯舌、および緩い吸盤。由来は不明 (Harting, 1860:pl. 1) -
#18 (1861 年 11 月 30 日)フランスのコルベット艦
アレクトンが、1861 年 11 月 30 日にテネリフェ島沖で巨大イカの捕獲を試みている。アレクトンの士官が描いたオリジナルの水彩画の複製。Bourée (1912:115、図 108) より。 -
#18 (1861 年 11 月 30 日) P. ラッカーバウアーによる 1865 年のアレクトン
事件の挿絵。明らかに士官たちの水彩画に基づいている。これは、アルフレッド・モカン=タンドンが「アルフレッド・フレドル」というペンネームで出版した『Le Monde de la Mer 』の初版に掲載された(フレドル、1865:314、13 ページ)。 -
#18 (30/11/1861)
Engraving by Henri Théophile Hildibrand from Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas (1871), whose depiction of the giant squid was undoubtedly inspired by the Alecton encounter.[3] Bernard Heuvelmans's The Kraken and the Colossal Octopus incorrectly described this illustration as "[t]he Alecton squid after Arthur Mangin, 1864".[301] -
#18 (30/11/1861)
An illustration of the Alecton encounter from Les Animaux Excentriques by Henri Coupin, first published in 1903, based on the original from Bouyer (here given as "Rouyer"). -
#[1] (1870?)
Anatomical details of the squid that washed ashore in Nova Scotia, Canada, around 1870. It was originally described as Architeuthis megaptera and later identified as Sthenoteuthis pteropus. Shown are the mantle (fig. 1), teeth of the radula and palate (figs. 2–7), and arm and tentacle suckers (figs. 8–9) (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 21). -
#[1] (1870?)
Preserved sucker (oral view) of the Architeuthis megaptera type specimen from Nova Scotia. Deposited at Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History. -
#[1] (1870?)
Sucker of the same specimen in lateral view. Photographed in 2006 at the Peabody Museum of Natural History. -
#22 (?/10/1871) and #26 (≤1873)
The two syntypes of Architeuthis princeps: lower beak of Verrill specimen No. 1 from 1871 (#22; left—drawn by J. H. Emerton) and upper and lower beaks of Verrill specimen No. 10 from 1873 or earlier (#26; top and bottom—drawn by A. E. Verrill) (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 18). A front view of the former is additionally shown in Verrill (1882c:pl. 11 fig. 3a). -
#25 (?/12/1872), #30 (25/11?/1873), and one other
Anatomical details of Verrill specimen No. 4 from 1872 (#25; tentacular sucker and closeup of same: figs. 5–6) and Verrill specimen No. 5 from 1873 (#30; lining membrane of palate: fig. 1; caudal fins: fig. 2; tentacular suckers: fig. 3; arm sucker: fig. 4) (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 16). Also shown are radular teeth of Loligo pallida (synonym of Doryteuthis pealeii; fig. 7) and giant squid specimen #16, redrawn from Harting (1860:pl. 1 fig. 4) (fig. 8). -
#25 (?/12/1872) and others
Verrill's sketches of the two halves of the lower mandible of specimen No. 4 from 1872 (#25), drawn from photographs (figs. 5–5a), as well as beaks and other remains redrawn from earlier sources: #16 from Harting (1860:pl. 1 figs. 1, 8, 8') (figs. 1–1b); Steenstrup's A. dux from Harting (1860:pl. 1 fig. 1A) (fig. 2); #13 after what was eventually published as Steenstrup (1898:pl. 1 fig. 2) (fig. 3); and "Enoploteuthis hartingii" from Harting (1860:pl. 2 fig. 15, pl. 3 figs. 23–24) (figs. 4–4b) (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 25) -
#26 (≤1873)
Upper beak extracted from a sperm whale stomach, from Packard (1873:93, fig. 10). A. E. Verrill considered the illustration inaccurate and published his own version. The much smaller beak (drawn to scale), possibly from the same whale, may belong to Gonatus fabricii, as suggested by Steenstrup.[302] -
#27 (≤1873)
The type specimen of Plectoteuthis grandis, consisting of a single arm (Owen, 1881:pl. 34). The provenance of this material is uncertain, but it may originate from the east coast of South America.[33] -
#27 (≤1873)
Closeups and cross-sectional view of the same (Owen, 1881:pl. 35) -
#29 (26/10/1873)
Victor Nehlig's 1881 impression of fisherman Theophilus Picot's encounter with a giant squid off Portugal Cove, Newfoundland, on 26 October 1873 (Rathbun, 1881:267, fig.; compare similar illustration by W. A. Cranston, another by Charles Livingston Bull, and this cover by Quinto Cenni) -
#29 (26/10/1873)
An illustration of the same encounter from the 12 February 1902 issue of The Anniston Hot Blast ([Anon.], 1902b:6, fig.). -
#29 (26/10/1873)
The 19-foot (5.8 m) tentacle of the first Portugal Cove specimen, hacked off a live animal on 26 October 1873 (Owen, 1881:pl. 33 fig. 2; see very similar but horizontally flipped woodcut from Harvey, 1874a:68, fig.) -
#29 (26/10/1873)
The Adventure of the Giant Squid, painted by N. C. Wyeth c. 1939 to illustrate Norman Duncan's The Adventures of Billy Topsail (1906)[228] as republished in Anthology of Children's Literature (1940).[303] The story includes a fictionalised encounter with a giant squid based on the widely reported first Portugal Cove specimen. -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Artist's depiction of the fishermen's encounter with a giant squid off Logy Bay, Newfoundland, on 25 ?November 1873. Published in The Anniston Hot Blast on 12 February 1902 ([Anon.], 1902b:6, fig.). -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
The mutilated mantle of the specimen from Logy Bay, photographed in Moses Harvey's home (the caudal fin is visible on the right). This original photograph appears not to have been published prior to Aldrich (1991:458, fig. 1B). -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
The Logy Bay giant squid draped over Reverend Moses Harvey's sponge bath, November or December 1873. The original photographs (as opposed to line drawings thereof) were apparently not published until much later; the present one is taken from the April 1899 issue of The Wide World Magazine (Harvey, 1899:737, fig.), where it was captioned "Dr. Harvey's immense octopus [sic]". -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Another very similar (though non-identical) photograph of the head and arms of the Logy Bay giant squid. This one appeared in Frank Walter Lane's Kingdom of the Octopus (Lane, 1957:pl. 44), where it was described as "the best-known photograph of a giant squid". -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Line drawings taken from two photographs of the Logy Bay specimen (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 13). Note that the upper illustration is based on a slightly different frame to the preceding photo (as evidenced by the contrasting arrangement of arm tips on the lower left, which are closer to those seen in this version). -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
A. E. Verrill's reconstruction of "Architeuthis Harveyi", the Logy Bay giant squid (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 14) -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Two-part beak and gladius fragments of the Logy Bay specimen (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 15) -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Suckers of the arms and tentacles and closeups of the radula and its associated teeth (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 16a) -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Extant remains of the Logy Bay specimen (preserved in 70% alcohol) as they appeared in 2015, at Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History. -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Limbs of the Logy Bay specimen in 2015, at the Peabody Museum of Natural History. -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Radula as it appeared in 2006, at the Peabody Museum of Natural History (see also reverse side). -
#30 (25/11?/1873)
Model at the Peabody Museum of Natural History, partly based on the Logy Bay specimen. It was built in 1966 to replace the museum's original giant squid model, which was made by J. H. Emerton under the direction of A. E. Verrill in 1883 and was the world's first.[79] -
#33 (2/11/1874)
The "calmar gigantesque" that washed ashore on Île Saint-Paul on 2 November 1874, as documented by geologist Charles Vélain during a French astronomical mission to Île Saint-Paul to observe the transit of Venus (Vélain, 1877:81, fig. 8). The illustration is based on a photograph,[28] one of the first ever taken of a giant squid. -
#33 (2/11/1874)
Simplified illustration from George Tryon's Manual of Conchology (Tryon, 1879b:pl. 82 fig. 378), highlighting the strange morphology, on which Tryon opined: "The truncated arms and the gradually attenuating body, with very narrow fins extending along each side for half its length, are noticeable peculiarities, as is also the web connecting the arms; it is questionable, however, how much the engraving may be relied upon".[200] -
#34 (?/12/1874)
J. H. Emerton's reconstruction of Architeuthis princeps, based chiefly on the Fortune Bay specimen, also known as Verrill specimen No. 13 (Verrill, 1881b:pl. 54 fig. 1). Identified as a drawing of the Catalina specimen (#42) in Richard Ellis's The Search for the Giant Squid.[304] -
#34 (?/12/1874)
Beak of the Fortune Bay specimen (preserved in 70% alcohol) as it appeared in 2007. Deposited at the Peabody Museum of Natural History. -
#34 (?/12/1874) and #42 (24/9/1877)
Details of the horny ring of a large tentacular sucker of Verrill specimen No. 13 from 1874 (#34; fig. 11) and assorted arm and tentacular suckers of Verrill specimen No. 14 from 1877 (#42; remaining figures) (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 17) -
#37 (25/4/1875)
Beak and buccal mass of giant squid caught on 25 April 1875, off Inishbofin, Connemara, Ireland, as it appeared at the National Museum of Ireland – Natural History in 2019. -
#42 (24/9/1877)
The "nearly perfect specimen" that was beached alive in Catalina, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, on 24 September 1877, from the 27 October 1877 issue of Canadian Illustrated News ([Anon.], 1877a:269, fig.) -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Illustration of the "devil-fish" from Catalina, from the 3 November 1877 issue of Harper's Weekly ([Anon.], 1877b:868, fig.) -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Another depiction of the Catalina specimen, from the cover of the 17 November 1877 issue of The Penny Illustrated Paper and Illustrated Times ([Anon.], 1877c:305, fig.) -
#42 (24/9/1877)
A further illustration of the Catalina specimen, showing the animal after it had died (see related figure), from the 9 June 1883 issue of the French popular science magazine La Nature (Oustalet, 1883:17, fig. 1; also reproduced in Heuvelmans, 2003:fig. 103). -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Drawing by A. E. Verrill of the Catalina specimen, here incorrectly identified as the Fortune Bay specimen (#34); see original illustration (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 20) -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Ventral views of the supposedly anteriorly-free caudal fins of the Catalina specimen (top: after several days in alcohol; bottom: after several months in same), now known to be a preservation artefact[305] (Verrill, 1880a:pl. 19) -
#42 (24/9/1877)
The US display at the International Fisheries Exhibition of 1883, held in London, UK (illustration by William Hatherell, from Cassell, 1903:600, fig.). An Architeuthis princeps model, made by J. H. Emerton and A. E. Verrill for the Smithsonian and based on the Catalina specimen, is seen hanging in the background.[306] -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Another illustration of the American court at the International Fisheries Exhibition of 1883, with a giant squid model based on the Catalina specimen hanging overhead, from the fourth of a series of papers about the exhibition published in Science by American ichthyologist George Brown Goode (Goode, 1883:614, fig.). -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Fisheries Court exhibit at the United States National Museum in Washington, D.C. (in what is now the Arts and Industries Building), as it appeared in 1886. J. H. Emerton's giant squid and giant octopus models are suspended from the ceiling surrounded by fishing nets (see also engraving of same). -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Hanging models of a giant squid (based on the Catalina specimen[306]) and a giant Pacific octopus, designed for the Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition of 1897, as they appeared in the Lower Invertebrates exhibit in the West Wing of the Smithsonian Institution Building c. 1901 (see also image from c. 1903). -
#42 (24/9/1877)
The original Star-Spangled Banner flag undergoing restoration work in 1914 in the West Wing of the Smithsonian Institution Building, under the hanging giant squid model, one of the few exhibits not removed for the occasion (see also photograph showing seamstresses at work under the guidance of Amelia Fowler) -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Catalina-inspired model on display in the Shell Gallery (now Jerwood Gallery)[307] of London's Natural History Museum in 1907. Bought in 1906 for US$450 (equivalent to $15,260 in 2023) from Ward's Natural Science Establishment of Rochester, New York, it was installed a year later.[308] It was destroyed during the Blitz in 1940;[309] the second and current model dates from 1974.[308] -
#42 (24/9/1877)
Ward's models of the Catalina giant squid and a giant Pacific octopus, suspended from the ceiling of the American Museum of Natural History's Shell and Coral Hall, early 20th century. The squid was later moved to the Hall of Ocean Life, the Invertebrate Hall, and, following refurbishment, the "Wall of Life" in the Hall of Biodiversity (see 2015 image).[310] Both models were acquired in 1895 for a total of US$750 (equivalent to $27,468 in 2023).[311] -
#42 (24/9/1877)
One of Ward's six original Catalina-inspired models is still extant at the Milwaukee Public Museum. Dating from 1898, it was purchased the following year after a protracted sale. The model was refurbished towards the end of the 20th century; taxidermist and artist Wendy Christensen-Senk repainted it a "more passionate reddish maroon" from its previous "battleship gray".[312] -
?#44 (21/11/1877)
Giant squid beached on the Newfoundland coast, apparently on 22 November 1877 (Heydebrand und der Lasa, 1887:72, fig.; closest is #44 from 21 November, from Smith's Sound). Two figures standing over the specimen, which are present in the original, have been removed in this version. Note the similarity to this illustration of the Catalina specimen. -
#45 (2/11/1878)
Artist's impression of the "Thimble Tickle specimen" found on 2 November 1878, which reportedly measured 55 feet (17 m) in total length, from Charles Frederick Holder's Marvels of Animal Life (Holder, 1885:198, pl. 25). No photographs or exact measurements exist as the specimen was cut up for dog food soon after its discovery. -
#45 (2/11/1878)
A "life-sized" (55-foot) concrete and metal sculpture of the Thimble Tickle giant squid of 1878. Completed in 2001 and weighing 4 tonnes, it was designed by Don Foulds and built by him and his students, following a CA$100,000 government contribution (equivalent to US$64,568 in 2023).[313] -
#45 (2/11/1878)
Another view of the sculpture showing the accompanying information plaque (compare the giant squid illustration therein with this modified version). Part of the Giant Squid Interpretation Site, the sculpture is located close to the site of the original specimen's capture and has featured on a Canada Post stamp.[314] -
#45 (2/11/1878)
Welcome sign from Glovers Harbour (formerly Thimble Tickle), Newfoundland, where the giant specimen of 1878 was found. It has long been regarded by Guinness World Records and its previous incarnations as the largest giant squid ever recorded.[315] -
#47 (23/5/1879)
Holotype of Thomas William Kirk's Steenstrupia stockii, from the type description (Kirk, 1882:pl. 36 figs. 2–4) -
#49 (?/9/1879)
Soft tissue remains of the 1879 specimen from Olafsfjord, Iceland, as they appeared in 2012 at the Zoological Museum in Copenhagen. The material is labelled as Architeuthis monachus, a taxon now considered synonymous with A. dux. -
#49 (?/9/1879)
Evolutionary biologist M. Thomas P. Gilbert pointing to the preserved left tentacle of the Olafsfjord giant squid of 1879 -
#49 (?/9/1879)
Closeup of the same specimen, showing the enlarged suckers of the tentacular club. The morphology of this tentacle was studied by Roeleveld (2002). -
#54 (?/4/1880) and one other
Beak with buccal mass and oesophagus, tentacular club, and arm fragments of the Grand Banks specimen found dead at the surface in April 1880 (#54), the first in which arm and sucker regeneration was documented (Verrill, 1881b:pl. 26). A single sucker (fig. 5) of the first Portugal Cove specimen (#29) is also shown. -
#55 (6/6/1880)
An illustration of the Architeuthis verrilli holotype taken from Thomas William Kirk's formal description of the latter (Kirk, 1882:pl. 36 fig. 1) -
#60 (10/11/1881)
Illustration of the giant squid that was found in Portugal Cove, Newfoundland, on 10 November 1881 (Verrill's penultimate specimen—No. 27). Based on a photograph by E. Lyons of St. John's, it was published in Harper's Weekly for 10 December ([Anon.], 1881:821, fig.). -
#62 (?/10/1887)
T. W. Kirk's sketch of the Architeuthis longimanus type specimen in lateral aspect (Kirk, 1888:pl. 7). Note the extreme length of the feeding tentacles relative to the mantle and arms, which has been questioned by some authors.[nb 24] -
#62 (?/10/1887)
Illustration of the A. longimanus specimen by T. W. Kirk, showing the posterior end of the mantle (including caudal fins), details of arm and tentacular suckers, and transverse sections of arms I–IV (Kirk, 1888:pl. 8) -
#62 (?/10/1887)
T. W. Kirk's final plate of A. longimanus, showing the two-part beak (both in situ and following extraction) and a single row of radular teeth (Kirk, 1888:pl. 9) -
#67 (4/2/1895)
Type specimen of Architeuthis japonica, caught in a net in Tokyo Bay on 4 February 1895 after a 2–3 day storm (Mitsukuri & Ikeda, 1895:pl. 10) -
#68 (18/7/1895)
Mantle measuring 46 cm originally recovered from sperm whale vomit, from a 1900 work by Louis Joubin (Joubin, 1900:pl. 15 fig. 8). This specimen is the holotype of Dubioteuthis physeteris. -
#68 (18/7/1895)
Gladius (internal shell remnant) measuring 39 cm extracted from the same specimen (Joubin, 1900:pl. 15 fig. 10) -
#68 (18/7/1895)
Detail of the dorsal anterior mantle of the Dubioteuthis physeteris holotype (Joubin, 1900:pl. 15 fig. 9) -
#[3] (18/7/1895)
Two-part beak of an undetermined squid (Joubin, 1900:pl. 14 figs. 1–2), identified as possibly Architeuthis by Joubin (1900) and as non-architeuthid by Pfeffer (1912) -
#69 (10/4/1896) and others
Three giant squid from the NTNU Museum of Natural History and Archaeology in Trondheim, Norway, including the oldest and largest specimen (#69), which was found in 1896 and measures some 12 m (39 ft) in total length -
#69 (10/4/1896) and others
View from the other end of the corridor, showing the tentacles of the three more-or-less complete specimens and various other assorted giant squid parts (see also tentacular club being examined) -
#69 (10/4/1896)
Tentacular suckers of the largest specimen, examined in 2011, when the box containing the museum's six giant squid was reopened for maintenance, registration in the database, and to add new preservatives.[316] -
#69 (10/4/1896)
Beak of the same specimen, as it appeared during the 2011 inspection -
?#69 (10/4/1896) and others
Assorted arms and tentacles of several old giant squid specimens from the NTNU Museum of Natural History and Archaeology (see also before and during removal from box, and details of tentacular club) -
#69 (10/4/1896) or #70 (27/9/1896)
One of the two giant specimens from Kyrksæterøra, stretched out for measurement -
#70 (27/9/1896)
Ventral (top) and dorsal views of the second 1896 specimen from Kyrksæterøra. The present copy was released by the NTNU Museum of Natural History and Archaeology in 2011; lower-resolution versions originally appeared in Storm (1897:100, fig. 20) and Brinkmann (1916:179, fig. 2).
Notes


.jpg/500px-Giant_squid_as_sea_serpent_(1931).jpg)
- ^ Verrill's marginal annotations read as follows: "Architeuthis monachus (No. 5) Logie Bay, N. Foundland about 1⁄8 natural size between 1⁄8 and 1⁄9. The tub is 38 1⁄2 inches [98 cm] in diameter and circular. Harvey (?) letter. Some of the suckers are broken off on the short arms. They alternate in two regular rows. On the club of the long arm there is a marginal row of small suckers on each side alternating with the large ones. One sucker gone on this long arm."[2]
- ^ A number of naturalists had become convinced of the existence of giant cephalopods even prior to Steenstrup's writings.[6] One example was American naturalist and physician Samuel L. Mitchill, who brought together numerous reports of such animals in letters published in his journal, The Medical Repository, in the 1810s.[7] Another early proponent was Hamilton Smith, F.R.S., who examined a beak and other parts of an "enormous Sepia" preserved at the Museum of Haarlem (now Teylers Museum) and presented his findings to the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1841.[8] Prior to acquiring material evidence in the 1850s, Steenstrup himself came to accept the existence of giant ten-limbed cephalopods based solely on textual sources (see #2 and 7), writing in 1849: "Whether we could get further than to realize that it is one of the Decapod forms of the Linnean genus Sepia will depend on whether such a form will later be washed ashore" (translated from the original Danish).[9] The existence of giant squid was also known to sperm whalers, who would occasionally witness their quarry regurgitating large fragments of these animals.[10] Herman Melville devoted a short chapter to the giant squid in his 1851 novel Moby-Dick, several years before its formal scientific recognition by Steenstrup.[11] Though a work of fiction, the novel has been described as including "the best description ever written of nineteenth-century Yankee whaling", with natural history accounts "as accurate as any nineteenth-century biologist's", and was partly informed by Melville's own experience on the whaling ship Acushnet.[12] Charles Paxton has argued that the idea that naturalists prior to Steenstrup generally rejected the existence of giant cephalopods[13] is erroneous and originates in part from Bernard Heuvelmans's "rather odd" telling of the giant squid's history in his In the Wake of the Sea-Serpents[14] and that, on the contrary, their reality was widely accepted, at least among the British zoological community, though the danger posed to ships (as claimed by authors such as Pierre Denys de Montfort[15]) was doubted.[16] Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society for more than 41 years and described by Paxton as "surely the personification of the scientific establishment in early 19th century Britain", was himself well acquainted with large squid, having eaten one (likely Taningia danae) in soup form on 3 March 1769, during James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific.[17] In 1783, Banks presented at the Royal Society an important early paper on ambergris by the London-based German physician Franz Xavier Schwediawer, in which was recounted an observation made by fishermen some ten years earlier of a sperm whale that had in its mouth an incomplete cephalopod tentacle nearly 27 ft (8.2 m) long.[18] To Schwediawer, this corroborated "the common saying of the fishermen, that the cuttle-fish is the largest fish of the ocean".[18] Schwediawer's footnote would be cited "uncritically" in subsequent works, such as Thomas Beale's influential The Natural History of the Sperm Whale of 1839.[17]
- ^ Ellis (1998a:86) described Verrill as someone with "an almost limitless capacity for work", who "began publishing papers on these specimens almost as fast as they came in". The full list of Verrill's publications on the Newfoundland strandings of 1870–1881 is as follows: Verrill 1874a, b, 1875a, b, c, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1880a, b, 1881a, b, 1882a, c.
- ^ The Logy Bay specimen of 25 ?November 1873 (#30) was the first complete giant squid to be photographed,[25] albeit in two parts and across two frames.[26] Although cited by Aldrich (1991:459) as "the first photographs of an architeuthid in North America", the specimen directly preceding it chronologically (by almost exactly a month; #29 from Portugal Cove) was also photographed, though here only a severed tentacle—the only part saved—was imaged. Woodcuts prepared from this latter photograph appeared in a number of periodicals of the time, including The Field and The Annals and Magazine of Natural History.[27] The giant squid found beached on Île Saint-Paul on 2 November 1874 (#33) was another early specimen to be photographed.[28] Perhaps the earliest of all was the beak of the October 1871 specimen (#22) from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, whose photograph was taken some time after its discovery but already mentioned in February 1873 by Packard (1873:92).
- ^ According to Harvey's entry in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography, written by giant squid expert Frederick Aldrich, "[a]t least ten per cent of his essays deal with [the giant] squid".[31]
- ^ Unconfirmed mass appearances of giant squid include the claim by Frederick Aldrich that a "school of 60 has been sighted off the coast of Newfoundland"[39] (cf. #38). Richard Ellis noted that Aldrich never repeated this claim in print, "so it is likely that he learned it was not accurately reported".[40] However, Aldrich had earlier given more details in an interview with The Muse, where he stated that in autumn 1964 a Japanese trawler operating around 100 miles (160 km) off St. John's "went through a school of sixty or seventy of these animals frolicking on the surface of the water".[41] Aldrich also told Clyde Roper that "Grand Banks fishermen have reported seeing hundreds of giant squid bodies floating on the surface".[42]
- ^ a b c These three-dimensional models were preceded by a full-scale painted wooden cutout, with arms 35 ft (11 m) long, that was prepared by Francis Trevelyan Buckland in the 1870s for his Museum of Economic Fish Culture in South Kensington, London.[76] Its appearance was based on official papers and photographs Buckland received through the Colonial Office in December 1873 relating to both the first Portugal Cove specimen (#29) and the Logy Bay specimen (#30).[76] Buckland's cutout has been described as the "first attempt to show the public what a giant squid really looked like".[77]
- ^ See giant squid specimen #661, whose tank leaked around 1 tonne of formalin in February 2022, resulting in the month-long closure of the Ibaraki Nature Museum near Tokyo, Japan.
- ^ Dery (2013) wrote that "virtually every general-interest article dutifully repeats the magic number of 60 feet [18.3 m]". This figure matches that estimated for the total length of the Portugal Cove specimen of 1873 (#29)[87] and is close to that given for the total length of the Architeuthis longimanus holotype, which describer Thomas William Kirk variously cited as 55 ft 2 in (16.81 m) or 57 ft (17.4 m) and which the fisherman who found the specimen gave as 62 ft (18.9 m).[88]
- ^ Other specimens claimed at various times to be the largest giant squid on record include #47, 121, 371, 480, 491, and 647 (see also #29, 42, 46, 62, 104, 114, 137, 151, 171, 209, 342, and 524).
- ^ In particular, the commercially important Humboldt squid (Dosidicus gigas) is sometimes called 'giant squid' (or its Spanish equivalent calamar gigante) and this, together with its large size, has led to confusion with Architeuthis (e.g. misidentification #[2]). In February 2002, the Manhattan-based seafood restaurant Esca offered what was claimed to be Architeuthis, but the ammonia-free flesh turned out to be that of the Humboldt squid.[107]
- ^ One record given by Ellis is omitted from the present list: Ellis (1998a:259) lists a specimen supposedly collected "[n]orth of Bahamas" in 1898, citing Steenstrup (1898), but this appears to stem from confusion with the type specimen of Architeuthis dux (#14), collected off the Bahamas in 1855.
- ^ Published purported giant squid sightings thus excluded include those of J. D. Starkey from World War II;[113] Dennis Braun from 1969;[114] Jacques Cousteau (reported in 1973);[115] Tim Lipington from 1994;[116] C. A. McDowall (reported in 1998);[117] Gordon Robertson (reported in 2013);[118] and the "Giant Squid Found" MonsterQuest episode of 2007.[119] Likewise excluded are two sightings off Suffolk, England, both tentatively attributed to Architeuthis: the first a group sighting off Pakefield Gat on 29 October 1896[120] and the other an individual off Southwold on 20 October 1938.[121] Also excluded are reported sightings of giant squid engaged in surface "battles" with whales,[122] such as that supposedly witnessed by a whaler c. 1875;[123] from a Soviet whaling ship in 1965; from Danger Point Lighthouse, South Africa, in 1966;[124] and that supposedly seen and photographed from USS San Pablo around 120–140 miles (190–230 km) off Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland, also in 1966[125] (the resulting photos were reportedly "quite unsatisfactory"[126]). The squid–whale battles described in Frank Thomas Bullen's The Cruise of the Cachalot (1898)[127] and E. J. Pratt's The Cachalot (1926) have at times also been claimed to be based on true events.[128] Also excluded are supposed wartime encounters with giant squid, including off The Narrows, Newfoundland, and Dieppe, France,[129] and the giant squid that reportedly attacked survivors of SS Britannia after it was sunk by a German merchant raider in 1941.[130] Supposed specimens thus excluded include Charles H. Dudoward's 1892 and 1922 carcasses (variously described as octopuses or squid[131]); the so-called St. Augustine Monster of 1896 (initially postulated by A. E. Verrill to be a giant squid,[132] later a gigantic octopus, and eventually shown to be the remains of a whale[133]); other "blobs" and "globsters" variously speculated to be giant squid;[134] the whale-vomited giant limb fragment mentioned in Willy Ley's 1959 book Exotic Zoology;[135] two 42-foot (13 m) long tentacles said to have been vomited by an aquarium-bound whale;[136] and the giant suckers supposedly recovered from sperm whale stomachs mentioned by Frederick Aldrich.[137] Also excluded are a number of enormous tentacles mentioned by Pierre Denys de Montfort,[138] based on interviews with whalers and sea captains, including one 35 feet (11 m) long recovered from the mouth of a sperm whale as told by American whaler Ben Johnson; another 45 feet (14 m) long found alongside a slaughtered whale as recalled by another American whaler by the name of Reynolds; a 25-foot (7.6 m) portion (the whole tentacle was said to be around 35–40 feet [11–12 m] long) hacked off during an attack off the West African coast according to Danish captain Jean-Magnus Dens; and captain Anderson's recollection of finding a pair of 25-foot (7.6 m) tentacles "still connected by part of the mantle" on rocks near Bergen, Norway.[139] Frost (1934:103), citing the 21 December 1933 issue of The Evening Telegram of St. John's,[140] mentioned that Hon. Capt. A. Kean claimed he had found a giant squid at Flowers Cove "measuring 72 feet [22 m] from tip to tip, and almost dead", more than 50 years earlier. Similarly, Bright (1989:149) mentioned that a "specimen found at Flower's Cove on the Newfoundland coast in 1934 [sic] was positively identified and measured" at 22 m, and Kilias (1993:610) wrote of a specimen from Flowers Cove supposedly measuring 21.95 m.[141] A similar length of 23 m is sometimes attributed to a purported 1933 stranding from Australia.[142] There also exists a report of a specimen from Portugal Cove, Newfoundland, said to have been spotted in 1817 by a local minister named Larveige and named after him.[143] These records are likewise excluded due to a lack of substantiating evidence.
- ^ The giant squid has long been mooted as a possible explanation for "sea monster" sightings,[144] including most famously the kraken,[145] but also various "sea serpents",[146] such as the one purportedly seen off Greenland in 1734 and later reported by Hans Egede;[147] that sighted in Romsdalsfjord, Norway, in 1845;[148] that spotted by the crew of HMS Daedalus in 1848;[149] that encountered by HMS Plumper later the same year;[150] that allegedly observed battling a whale from the barque Pauline in 1875;[151] and two reported near Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia, in 1930: off Bellambi and two weeks later off Scarborough.[152] Older examples occasionally attributed to the giant squid include the hydra from Conrad Gessner's Historia Animalium of 1555;[153] the "monstrous fish" from Olaus Magnus's Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus of the same year (later reprinted by authors such as Gessner, Edward Topsell, Ulisse Aldrovandi, and John Jonston);[154] and various mythological and folkloric creatures such as the Greek Scylla,[155] the Japanese Akkorokamui[156] and umibōzu,[157] the Māori Te Wheke-a-Muturangi,[158] and the Caribbean Lusca.[156] Giant squid have even, on occasion, been proposed as an explanation for the Loch Ness Monster,[159] with the obvious problem that all living cephalopods are exclusively marine.[160] Some authors have cautioned against attributing "sea monster" sightings to giant squid and offered alternative explanations.[161]
- ^ Early sources variously give the date as 1545,[170] 1546,[171] December 1549,[172] or 1550.[173] Lycosthenes (1557) mentions three "sea monks" supposedly found in 1530, 1546, and 1549, the first in the Rhine and the latter two near Copenhagen (possibly referring to the same specimen). The earliest known source, a German woodcut of the creature dating from 1546[174]—according to which the event happened the same year—places an upper bound on the date, and Paxton & Holland (2005) consider 1546 to be the most likely year.
- ^ Mentioned by Steenstrup (1855a:78), presumably referring to Jónsson's encyclopedic Annálar Björns á Skarðsá, covering the history of Iceland from 1400 to 1645, which was eventually published as a dual Icelandic–Latin work in 1774–1775.[178]
- ^ It reads: "In the autumn [of 1639] on Thingøresand in Hunevandsyssel a peculiar creature or sea monster was stranded with length and thickness like those of a man; it had 7 tails, and each of these measured approximately two ells. These tails were densely covered with a kind of button, and the buttons looked as if there was an eye ball in each button, and round the eye ball an eyelid; these eyelids looked as if they were gilded. On this sea monster there was in addition a single tail which had grown out above those 7 tails; it was extremely long, 4–5 fms [7.5–9.4 m]; no bone or cartilage were found in its body but the whole to the sight and to the touch was like the soft belly of the female lumpfish [Cyclopterus lumpus]. No trace was seen of the head, except the one aperture, or two, which were found behind the tails or at a short distance from them. This very creature was observed by many trustworthy men, and one of the tails of the sea monster was brought home to Thingørekloster for examination."[184]
- ^ In a 2013 article about the giant squid, Mark Dery wrote: "contemporary teuthologists dismiss the "attack" as the death throes of a moribund animal, pointing out that virtually all giant squid encountered on the ocean's surface are dead or dying. "There is not a single corroborated story of a [giant] squid attacking a man, a boat, or a submersible", asserts Ellis."[222]
- ^ As part of his research for The Kraken, Reed travelled to Newfoundland and spoke to Picot's descendants and to Margueritte Aldrich, widow of giant squid expert Frederick Aldrich.[230]
- ^ The length of the "body [..] from the beak to the extremity of the tail" (i.e. mantle plus head) was said to be 20 ft (6.1 m), with "one of the arms" (presumably a tentacle) measuring 35 ft (10.7 m), for a total length of 55 ft (16.8 m).[246] The total length of the "Thimble Tickle specimen" is sometimes mistakenly cited as 57 ft (17.4 m).[116] Over time, various other superlative measurements have been attributed to the specimen, including a mass of 2 tonnes[247] or exactly 4,480 lb (2,030 kg);[248] an eye diameter of 40 cm,[247] 18 in (46 cm),[249] or 9 in (23 cm);[250] and suckers 4 in (10 cm) across.[249] Wildly excessive mass estimates for the specimen have included:[251] 29.25 or 30 short tons (26.5 or 27.2 tonnes);[252] near 24 tonnes;[253] less than 8 tonnes;[254] and 2.8 or "more realistic[ally]" 2 tonnes.[255]
- ^ The identity of the two other fishermen in the boat is not given in Moses Harvey's original account,[246] but later sources identify Joseph Martin, the founder of Thimble Tickle (now known as Glovers Harbour), as one of the fishermen involved in the squid's capture.[256] George Marsh and Henry Rowsell—the founders of the nearby settlements of Winter House Cove and Lock's Harbour (Lockesporte), respectively—have also been suggested as participants.[257] The fishermen may have learned of Moses Harvey's interest in the giant squid when the latter visited Notre Dame Bay only a couple of months earlier, in August 1878, as part of a geological survey.[258] A CBC News report broadcast in 2004 features Maurice Martin, great-great-grandson of Joseph Martin, recounting the story of the squid's capture as told to him by his grandfather.[259]
- ^ An early example comes from the 1968 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records, which gives an erroneous provenance of "Thimble Tickle, one of the Thimble Islands off the coast of Connecticut [sic]";[260] this was corrected by the 1971 edition.[248] The "Thimble Tickle specimen" is also cited as the largest recorded giant squid in many subsequent Guinness publications.[261] The specimen is not mentioned in the first US edition (titled The Guinness Book of Superlatives), published in 1956, which gives more modest maximum dimensions for the species: "The giant squid (Architeuthis) found on the Newfoundland Banks may have a body length of 8 feet [2.4 m] and measure up to 40 feet [12 m] overall."[262]
- ^ Paxton countered that this was possibly attributable to shrinkage of the gladius prior to measurement, or to it having been severed in several places beforehand,[94] but Kirk wrote that it was measured "when first extracted" and only later "shr[a]nk considerably".[269]
- ^ a b c Kirk (1888:38) provides a table with a detailed breakdown of the specimen's various measurements. There is, however, a discrepancy between the total length of 684 in (17.37 m, or exactly 57 ft) given in the table—which agrees with the individual values of 71 in (1.80 m) for the mantle, 22 in (0.56 m) for the head, and 591 in (15.01 m) for the tentacles—and the total length of 55 ft 2 in (16.81 m) given by Kirk in the body of the article. Wood (1982:191) suggested that, due to the tentacles' highly retractile nature, the total length of 62 feet (18.9 m) originally reported by the fisherman "may have been correct at the time he found the squid", and that "[t]his probably also explains the discrepancy in Kirk's figures". Owing to its small mantle size, Wood (1982:191) estimated that "this specimen probably weighed less than 300 lb [140 kg]". O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) opined that the reported total length of 55 ft 2 in (16.81 m) "simply cannot be correct" and attributed it to either "imagination" or artificial lengthening of the tentacles. They added that a female giant squid with a mantle length of 71 in (180 cm) "measured post mortem and relaxed (by modern standards) today would have a total length of ≈32 feet [9.8 m]". Paxton (2016a:86) wrote that this specimen "clearly has the largest ratio of TL to ML [total length to mantle length] ever known in Architeuthis [...] which led [O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008] to suggest that the length was paced out and/or there was extensive post-mortem stretching. However, a re-reading of the original paper suggests that the specimen, although initially paced out, was actually measured, nevertheless the TL is at the edge of the 99.9% prediction interval range [...] and so it was certainly an unusual specimen."
- ^ Frederick Aldrich, who personally examined more than a dozen giant squid specimens, wrote that his largest specimen from Newfoundland bore tentacular suckers "approximately two inches [5.1 cm] in diameter" but that "[s]uckers and their toothed armament of over twelve inches [30 cm] in diameter have been found in the stomachs of sperm whale [sic] as indigestible wastes".[137] This led him to entertain the idea of giant squid over 150 ft (46 m) long and even to suggest a binomial name for this super-sized species, were it ever to be discovered: Architeuthis halpertius (after folklorist Herbert Halpert).[137] Aldrich restated this belief in "Monsters of the Deep", the second episode of the 1980 television series Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World: "I believe that the giant squid reach an approximate maximum size of something like a hundred and fifty feet [46 m]".[291] Richard Ellis, apparently unaware of Aldrich's similar statements in print, commented: "It is difficult to imagine why Aldrich would have made such an irresponsible statement, unless it had to do with being on camera".[272] Arthur C. Clarke himself wrote in 1992 that "the evidence suggests, they [giant squid] grow up to 150 feet in length".[292] The published literature includes many other such extreme size estimates based only on supposed giant squid suckers or scars thereof.
References
Short citations
- ^ Frank, 2014:246; Offord, 2016
- ^ Aldrich, 1991:459
- ^ a b c d Aldrich, 1978; Ellis, 1998a:79, 2005:143–144
- ^ Rees, 1949; Salvador & Tomotani, 2014; Hogenboom, 2014
- ^ Steenstrup, 1857:183; validated in Harting, 1860:11
- ^ Kent, 1874c:116–117; Paxton, 2018:56
- ^ Mitchill, 1813, 1815; see also response from Lee, 1819
- ^ Smith, 1842a:73, b:85; Earle, 1977:20
- ^ Steenstrup, 1849:952/[10]
- ^ Schwediawer, 1783:236; Ellis, 1998a:5, 2005:148
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:5, 133–134; King, 2019:142
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:133
- ^ see e.g. Earle, 1977:20–21
- ^ Heuvelmans, 1968
- ^ de Montfort, 1801; see Freeman, 2017:55
- ^ Paxton, 2018:56–57
- ^ a b Paxton, 2018:56
- ^ a b Schwediawer, 1783:236–237; Paxton, 2018:56
- ^ Steenstrup, 1857:184; validated in Harting, 1860:11
- ^ Bouyer, 1861
- ^ Harvey, 1874a
- ^ Lee, 1875:111; Earle, 1977; Muntz, 1995; McConvey, 2015b
- ^ Coe, 1929:36; G.E. Verrill, 1958:69
- ^ Murray, 1874b:121
- ^ a b c Offord, 2016; Keartes, 2016
- ^ Aldrich, 1991:458
- ^ Harvey, 1874a:68; Verrill, 1875a:34
- ^ a b c Wright, 1878:329
- ^ Aldrich, 1987:109; Frank, 2014
- ^ Hatton & Harvey, 1883:238–243; Aldrich, 1987:115, 1994
- ^ Aldrich, 1994
- ^ Ellis, 1994a:379, 1998a:257; Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[27]
- ^ a b c Lee, 1875:114
- ^ Nesis, 2001
- ^ a b Sweeney & Young, 2003
- ^ Aldrich, 1991:474; Förch, 1998:93; Winkelmann et al., 2013; Guerra et al., 2013
- ^ Downer, 1965:8; Aldrich, 1967a, 1968a
- ^ Stevens, 1988:158–160
- ^ Aldrich, 1967b
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:241
- ^ Downer, 1965:8
- ^ a b c Roper & Shea, 2013:111
- ^ Kubodera et al., 2016; see also Sakamoto, 2014
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:211
- ^ Oreskes, 2003:716, 2014:29
- ^ Baird, 2002; Kubodera, 2010
- ^ [NHK], 2013a, b; Dery, 2013
- ^ Hann, 2006; Guerra et al., 2011:1990; Walker, 2011
- ^ Okutani, 2015
- ^ Nesis, 2003; Coro et al., 2015
- ^ [NMNH], 2004
- ^ Guerra et al., 2006; Fernández-Pello García, N.d.
- ^ a b Kubodera et al., 2016
- ^ O'Shea, 1997, 1999
- ^ Roper & Shea, 2013:111; Roper, 2016
- ^ Roper et al., 2015
- ^ Roper & Jereb, 2010:121; Roper, 2016
- ^ see map in Sivertsen, 1955:11
- ^ Guerra et al., 2006
- ^ Turner, 1963:23
- ^ Ellis, 1994a:133
- ^ Guerra et al., 2011:1991
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:242; see Loates, 1989
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:242–243
- ^ Miller, 1983; Landman & Ellis, 1998; Landman et al., 1999; Roper & Jereb, 2010:123; Ablett, 2012
- ^ [Anon.], 1988:4, 1989:7; Ellis, 1998a:46; Lien, 2000:278; Grann, 2004; see also [NTA], 1966 and identically worded magazine appeal in Aldrich, 1968b
- ^ [Anon.], 1971
- ^ Guerra & Segonzac, 2014:118
- ^ [Anon.], 2014a, b
- ^ Shimada et al., 2017:9
- ^ [NMNH], 2004; [SITES], 2004
- ^ [Anon.], 2004b; Miller, 2004
- ^ Ellis, 1997a:52
- ^ Emerton, 1883; Tratz, 1973; Ellis, 1997a, b, 1998a:214; Wechsler, 1999
- ^ a b Ellis, 1997a:31, 48
- ^ a b Buckland, 1875:211–216, 1886:400; Ellis, 1997a:31
- ^ Ellis, 1997a:31
- ^ a b Ellis, 1997a:34, 46
- ^ a b Ellis, 1997a:35
- ^ Emerton, 1883; Ellis, 1997a:35–36
- ^ Ellis, 1997a:44–46
- ^ [Anon.], 1966; Ellis, 1997a:34–35; [Anon.], 2004a
- ^ [Anon.], 1969
- ^ Drahl, 2008
- ^ [Anon.], 2010
- ^ Wood, 1982:188–193; Ellis, 1998a:6–7, b; Paxton, 2016a, b; Bittel, 2016; Romanov et al., 2017
- ^ Murray, 1874a:161, 1874b:121
- ^ Kirk, 1888:35, 38
- ^ Wood, 1982:189, 191; Ellis, 1998a:6–7; O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008; Paxton, 2016a
- ^ O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008; Dery, 2013; Roper & Shea, 2013:113; Hanlon & Messenger, 2018:267; see also Nesis, 2001
- ^ Cerullo & Roper, 2012:22
- ^ a b O'Shea, 2003b
- ^ Paxton, 2016a, b; [Anon.], 2016
- ^ a b c d e Greshko, 2016
- ^ McClain et al., 2015:Table 3
- ^ Roper & Jereb, 2010:121
- ^ a b O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008
- ^ a b Nilsson et al., 2012:683; Land & Nilsson, 2012:86
- ^ Robson, 1933:681
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:73; Norman, 2000:150; Roper & Jereb, 2010:121
- ^ Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:62
- ^ Roper & Jereb, 2010:123
- ^ see Roeleveld, 2002
- ^ [UCPH], 2013
- ^ see Ellis, 1998a; Salcedo-Vargas, 1999; Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004
- ^ Robson, 1933:681; see e.g. Robson, 1929 by the same author
- ^ Ellis, 2005:198
- ^ a b Sweeney & Roper, 2001
- ^ Ellis, 1994a:379–384, 1998a:257–265
- ^ Ellis, 1994a:ix
- ^ [Anon.], 1999:109; Roper et al., 2015:78
- ^ e.g. Leite et al., 2016; Funaki, 2017; Romanov et al., 2017; Shimada et al., 2017; Guerra et al., 2018
- ^ Starkey, 1963; Welfare & Fairley, 1980:74; Bright, 1989:148; Ellis, 1998a:204; Paxton, 2016a:83; dramatised in Packham, 1998
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:245; Paxton, 2016a:83
- ^ Cousteau & Diolé, 1973:205; Ellis, 1998a:208, 2005:145
- ^ a b Paxton, 2016a:83
- ^ McDowall, 1998; Ellis, 1998a:248
- ^ Revkin, 2013
- ^ Hajicek, 2007, 2008; Cassell, 2007
- ^ Taylor, 1932:1; [Anon.], 1938a:21; originally reported in East Anglian Daily Times, 31 October 1896; see also Herrington, 1932:60
- ^ [Anon.], 1938a:21; [Anon.], 1938b:83; originally reported in East Anglian Daily Times, 22–25 October 1938
- ^ see Ellis, 1999
- ^ Heuvelmans, 1968:68; Berger, 2009:275
- ^ Hoff, 2003:84, 96
- ^ Aldrich, 1979:67; Welfare & Fairley, 1980:72, 74; Fitzgerald, 2018
- ^ a b Aldrich, 1979:67
- ^ Bullen, 1898:139; Ellis, 1998a:136–137, 180–181
- ^ Aldrich, 1977
- ^ [Anon.], 1988:4; Aldrich, 1990c
- ^ Lane, 1957:196; Gantès, 1979:38; Flynn & Weigall, 1980; Welfare & Fairley, 1980:71; Goss, 1985:39; Heuvelmans, 2003:252; Berger, 2009:261, 276; Dyer, 2021
- ^ LeBlond & Sibert, 1973:11, 32; Bright, 1989:140; Ellis, 1998a:202
- ^ a b Verrill, 1897:79; repeated by Bartsch, 1937:403
- ^ Pierce et al., 1995
- ^ e.g. Radford, 2003 (see Chilean Blob); Evon, 2017
- ^ Ley, 1959:210
- ^ Dozier, 1976:72; Ellis, 1998a:7
- ^ a b c Aldrich, 1980:59
- ^ de Montfort, 1801
- ^ Freeman, 2017:55
- ^ a b [Anon.], 1933
- ^ Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:64
- ^ e.g. Labails, 2009:24
- ^ Bonnell, 1963:6
- ^ Gould, 1886; Gibson, 1887; Aldrich, 1983; Ellis, 1994a, 1998a:10–30
- ^ Lee, 1875, 1883; Buel, 1887:81; Bullen, 1898:139; Allan, 1955a, b; Heuvelmans, 1958; Aldrich & Sullivan, 1978; Garcin & Raynal, 2011; Salvador & Tomotani, 2014; Walker, 2016; Naish, 2017
- ^ Buckland, 1886:399; Oudemans, 1892; Bartsch, 1917:364, 1931:347, 1937:403; Aldrich & Sullivan, 1978; Aldrich, 1979:67; Ellis, 1994b
- ^ Lee, 1883:64; Ellis, 1998a:15; but see Paxton et al., 2005
- ^ [Anon.], 1849:264; Myklebust, 1946; Ellis, 1998a:20
- ^ Lee, 1883:79; Ellis, 1998a:20; Switek, 2011; but see Galbreath, 2015:42
- ^ Carrington, 1957:35
- ^ Carrington, 1957:36; Paxton, 2021:314–315
- ^ Stead, 1933; Ellis, 1998a:28; Dalton, 2021
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:13–14
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:12, 14–15
- ^ Ley, 1941; Aldrich & Sullivan, 1978; Aldrich, 1990b; Ellis, 1998a:10–11; Lotzof, 2021; Guerra, 2022
- ^ a b Lotzof, 2021
- ^ Greener, 2010
- ^ Kirk, 1880:310; Lotzof, 2021
- ^ e.g. [Anon.], 1934
- ^ Paxton & Shine, 2016:27, 32
- ^ Paxton, 2003; France, 2016a, b, 2017
- ^ Lee, 2014; Mikkelson, 2014; Evon, 2016b; see also Ellis, 1994a:163, and April Fools' Day joke of Carstens, 2016, taken seriously by [Anon.], 2020
- ^ e.g. Evon, 2016a, 2017; Howard, 2017
- ^ Gerhardt, 1966:171; Muntz, 1995; Ellis, 1998a:11–12; Guerra, 2022; see Aristotle, c. 350 BC; Pliny, AD 77–79
- ^ [Anon.], 2000
- ^ Roper et al., 2015:78
- ^ Ellis, 1994a:379
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:5, 257; Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[27]; Guerra et al., 2004a:428; but see Paxton & Holland, 2005
- ^ Gudger, 1953:199; Lane, 1957:129; Ellis, 1994a:144
- ^ Vedel, 1575
- ^ Hamer, 1546; Rondelet, 1554; Gessner, 1558
- ^ Holberg, 1733
- ^ Huitfeldt, [1595]; Stephanius, [c. 1650]
- ^ Hamer, 1546
- ^ Muus, 1959:170
- ^ Carrington, 1957:63
- ^ Paxton & Holland, 2005:39
- ^ Jónsson, [c. 1645]; see Paxton & Holland, 2005:40
- ^ Roeleveld, N.d.
- ^ Barber & Riches, 1971:26; Aldrich, 1980:57
- ^ Carrington, 1957:63; Russell & Russell, 1975:97
- ^ Steenstrup, 1849:950–951/[9]
- ^ Packard, 1873:87
- ^ Steenstrup, 1849:950–952/[9–10]; for the original Icelandic text, see there and Jónsson, [c. 1645]:238
- ^ Steenstrup, 1849:952/[10–11]
- ^ Verrill, 1875c:214
- ^ a b c Tryon, 1879b:185
- ^ Hooke et al., c. 1674
- ^ see More, 1875a
- ^ [Anon.], c. 1673
- ^ see Sueur-Hermel, 2017
- ^ a b c Kristensen & Knudsen, 1983:222
- ^ Robson, 1933:690
- ^ from unpublished manuscript by Steenstrup cited in Verrill, 1875b:84
- ^ a b c [NHMD], 2019
- ^ Steenstrup
- ^ Verrill, 1875b:84 citing Harting, 1860
- ^ Tambs-Lyche, 1946:288
- ^ Harting, 1860
- ^ a b c d e Tryon, 1879b:184
- ^ a b c d Verrill, 1880a
- ^ a b Dell, 1970:27
- ^ a b Stephen, 1962:154
- ^ Crosse & Fischer, 1862:138
- ^ Dunning, 1998:428
- ^ MacAlaster, 1977:14
- ^ a b c Earle, 1977:53
- ^ Verrill, 1874a:158
- ^ a b Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[9]
- ^ a b Verrill, 1874a
- ^ Verrill, 1875b
- ^ J.E. Gray cited in Lee, 1875:114; see also Kent, 1874a:179
- ^ Kent, 1874a:178
- ^ Verrill, 1881b:401
- ^ Pfeffer, 1912:31
- ^ Owen, 1881:163
- ^ Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2000:276
- ^ a b Verrill, 1875a:34
- ^ Verrill, 1880a:181
- ^ Verrill, 1875b:79
- ^ Buckland, 1875:212–214
- ^ a b Dery, 2013
- ^ Buckland, 1875:213
- ^ Maunder, 1991
- ^ Hatton & Harvey, 1883:239
- ^ Agassiz, 1874
- ^ Packham, 1998
- ^ a b Duncan, 1906:34; Ellis, 1998a:82
- ^ Reed, 1995; Ellis, 1998a:82, 187
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:187
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:186
- ^ [Anon.], 1966; Ellis, 1997a:35
- ^ [Anon.], 2004a
- ^ Frank, 2014
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:201
- ^ Aldrich, 1978; Aldrich, 1990a:5
- ^ Reed, 1995; Ellis, 1998a:187
- ^ Lu et al., 1995
- ^ Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[12]
- ^ O'Connor, 1875
- ^ a b Nunn & Holmes, 2008
- ^ a b Pfeffer, 1912:32
- ^ a b Lau, 2021
- ^ a b [OM], 2021
- ^ Copedo, 2022
- ^ a b Verrill, 1880a:191, b:285
- ^ a b Ganeri, 1990:24; [Anon.], c. 2001
- ^ a b McWhirter & McWhirter, 1971:88
- ^ a b [Anon.], 1968
- ^ McWhirter & McWhirter, 1968:59, 1971:88
- ^ see Wood, 1982:190; Ellis, 1998a:107
- ^ MacGinitie & MacGinitie, 1949
- ^ Heuvelmans, 1958
- ^ MacGinitie & MacGinitie, 1968
- ^ Akimushkin, 1963; Wood, 1982:190
- ^ [Anon.], c. 2001; Harvey, 2004; Martin & Benoit, 2013; Marsh, 2016
- ^ Marsh, 2016
- ^ [Anon.], c. 2001
- ^ Harvey, 2004
- ^ McWhirter & McWhirter, 1968:59
- ^ e.g. Wood, 1982:189; Carwardine, 1995:240; Glenday, 2014:62; but see #121 for an exception
- ^ McWhirter & Page, 1956:101
- ^ Hickey, 2009
- ^ Hickey, 2010; [Anon.], N.d.
- ^ McConvey, 2015a
- ^ Verrill, 1882d:477
- ^ a b c d Marshall, 1996:45
- ^ Stevens, 1980:213, 1988:149–150
- ^ Kirk, 1880:312
- ^ a b c Marshall, 1996:46
- ^ see Dell, 1970:28
- ^ a b Ellis, 1998a:7
- ^ Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[87]
- ^ Joubin, 1895:34
- ^ [Anon.], 1890:190
- ^ a b Pfeffer, 1912:27
- ^ Martens, 1894
- ^ Kilias, 1967:491
- ^ Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004
- ^ Kilias, 1993
- ^ a b Voss, 1956:136
- ^ a b Belloc, 1950:6; listed incorrectly therein as station 558, per Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[33]; Sweeney, 2017:[105]
- ^ a b Eivindsen, 2011
- ^ Roeleveld, 2002:727
- ^ after Voss, 1998:104; Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[5]; Sweeney & Young, 2003; Roper et al., 2015:82; Sweeney, 2017
- ^ Gervais, 1875:93
- ^ Lipiński et al., 2000:106
- ^ Nesis, 1987:218
- ^ a b Pfeffer, 1912:2
- ^ Owen, 1881:156
- ^ Flynn & Weigall, 1980; Ellis, 1998a:6–7
- ^ Clarke, 1992:72
- ^ Verrill, 1880a:240
- ^ per unpublished notes by S.S. Berry at NMNH, cited by Sweeney, 2017:[194]
- ^ a b c d Förch, 1998:89
- ^ a b Kristensen & Knudsen, 1983:223
- ^ Lu et al., 1995:324
- ^ Paxton & Holland, 2005:41
- ^ see Barber & Riches, 1971:26; Aldrich, 1980:57
- ^ O'Shea, 2003d
- ^ Heuvelmans, 2003:fig. 100
- ^ Packard, 1873:94
- ^ Johnson & Scott, 1940; Ellis, 1998a:82
- ^ Ellis, 1998a:89, fig.
- ^ Förch, 1998:22–23
- ^ a b Ellis, 1997a:36
- ^ Snell & Tucker, 2003:43
- ^ a b Ellis, 1997a:44
- ^ Ellis, 1997a:44; see also Snell & Tucker, 2003:97
- ^ Ellis, 1998c
- ^ Ellis, 1997a:41
- ^ Ellis, 1997a:42
- ^ Harvey, 2004; [Anon.], N.d.
- ^ Hickey, 2009, 2010
- ^ see e.g. Wood, 1982:189; Carwardine, 1995:240; Glenday, 2014:62
- ^ Eivindsen, 2011; Lervik, 2011
- ^ Bullen, 1898:ill. facing p. 143
- ^ Bartsch, 1917:364–366, 1931:347–349, 1937:403
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