In the early stages of insulin resistance, the mass of beta cells expands, increasing the output of insulin to compensate for the insulin insensitivity, so that the disposition index remains constant.[63] But when type2 diabetes has become manifest, the person will have lost about half of their beta cells.[63]
The causes of the aging-related insulin resistance seen in obesity and in type2 diabetes are uncertain. Effects of intracellular lipid metabolism and ATP production in liver and muscle cells may contribute to insulin resistance.[64]
Diagnosis
The World Health Organization definition of diabetes (both type1 and type2) is for a single raised glucose reading with symptoms, or for raised glucose readings on two separate dates, of either:[67]
fasting plasma glucose ≥ 7.0mmol/L (126mg/dL)
or
glucose tolerance test with two hours after the oral dose a plasma glucose ≥ 11.1mmol/L (200mg/dL)
A random blood sugar of greater than 11.1mmol/L (200mg/dL) in association with typical symptoms[22] or a glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) of ≥48mmol/mol (≥6.5 DCCT%) is another method of diagnosing diabetes.[10] In 2009, an International Expert Committee that included representatives of the American Diabetes Association (ADA), the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) recommended that a HbA1c threshold of ≥48mmol/mol (≥6.5 DCCT%) should be used to diagnose diabetes.[68] This recommendation was adopted by the American Diabetes Association in 2010.[69] Positive tests should be repeated unless the person presents with typical symptoms and blood sugar >11.1mmol/L (>200mg/dL).[68]
Threshold for diagnosis of diabetes is based on the relationship between results of glucose tolerance tests, fasting glucose or HbA1c and complications such as retinal problems.[10] A fasting or random blood sugar is preferred over the glucose tolerance test, as they are more convenient for people.[10] HbA1c has the advantages that fasting is not required and results are more stable but has the disadvantage that the test is more costly than measurement of blood glucose.[71] It is estimated that 20% of people with diabetes in the United States do not realize that they have the disease.[10]
Type2 diabetes is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.[72] This is in contrast to type 1 diabetes in which there is an absolute insulin deficiency due to destruction of islet cells in the pancreas and gestational diabetes that is a new onset of high blood sugars associated with pregnancy.[23] Type1 and type2 diabetes can typically be distinguished based on the presenting circumstances.[68] If the diagnosis is in doubt antibody testing may be useful to confirm type1 diabetes and C-peptide levels may be useful to confirm type2 diabetes,[73] with C-peptide levels normal or high in type2 diabetes, but low in type1 diabetes.[74]
The use of statins in diabetes to prevent cardiovascular disease should be considered after evaluating the person's total risk for cardiovascular disease.[144]
The use of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) to prevent cardiovascular disease in diabetes is controversial.[144] Aspirin is recommended in people with previous cardiovascular disease, however routine use of aspirin has not been found to improve outcomes in uncomplicated diabetes.[145] Aspirin as primary prevention may have greater risk than benefit, but could be considered in people aged 50 to 70 with another significant cardiovascular risk factor and low risk of bleeding after information about possible risks and benefits as part of shared-decision making.[144]
Vitamin D supplementation to people with type2 diabetes may improve markers of insulin resistance and HbA1c.[146]
Sharing their electronic health records with people who have type2 diabetes helps them to reduce their blood sugar levels. It is a way of helping people understand their own health condition and involving them actively in its management.[147][148]
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