貴族院 | |
|---|---|
貴族院のロゴ | |
| タイプ | |
| タイプ | |
| リーダーシップ | |
バジルドンのスミス男爵夫人、 2024年7月5日より労働党 | |
トゥルー卿、 2024年7月8日より保守党 | |
サザークのケネディ卿、 2024年7月10日より労働党 | |
| 構造 | |
| 座席 | 805 [d] [1] |
政治団体 |
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任期の長さ |
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| 給料 | 年俸はありませんが、非課税の日当と経費が支給されます。 |
| 会場 | |
| 貴族院議事堂 ウェストミンスター宮殿、ロンドン 51°29′55.7″N 0°07′29.5″W / 51.498806°N 0.124861°W / 51.498806; -0.124861 | |
| Webサイト | |
| www.parliament.uk/lords | |
| 脚注 | |
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貴族院[ a]は、イギリス議会の上院である。[5]下院である庶民院と同様に、イギリス・ロンドンのウェストミンスター宮殿で会議が開かれる。[6]世界最古の機関の一つで、その起源は11世紀初頭に遡り、二院制が始まったのは13世紀である。[7] [8] [9]
庶民院とは対照的に、貴族院の議員資格は一般に選挙で獲得されるものではない。議員のほとんどは、政治的または非政治的な理由で終身任命される。 [10] [11] 世襲議員資格は1999年に92人の世襲貴族に制限された。90人は内部補欠選挙で選出され、それに加えてアール・マーシャルとグレート・チェンバレン卿が職権で議員となる。議員が直接議席を継承することはもうない。貴族院には、最大26人の大司教とイングランド国教会の司教も含まれ、彼らは霊的貴族として知られる。[11] [12] 2014年以降、議員資格は自主的に放棄または除名される可能性がある。[11]
議会の上院である貴族院は、庶民院と多くの類似した機能を持っている。[13]貴族院は立法を精査し、政府に説明責任を負わせ、公共政策を検討して報告する。[14] 貴族院議員は、立法を提案したり、法案の修正を提案したりすることもできる。[14]貴族院は、特定の限られた状況を除いて法案の成立を阻止することはできないが、法案の制定を最大1年間延期することができる。 [15] [16]この立場で、政治プロセスの圧力から独立した機関として、貴族院は立法の詳細に焦点を当てた「修正院」として機能し、時には庶民院に計画の再検討を求めると言われている。[17] [18]
貴族は政府の大臣を務めることもできるが、貴族院院内総務を除いて、通常は下級大臣としてのみ選出される。[19]貴族院は首相や政府の任期を管理していない。[20]首相の辞任や選挙の呼びかけを投票で決定できるのは庶民院のみである。[21]議席数が定められた庶民院とは異なり、貴族院の議員数は固定されていない。2024年9月28日現在[update]、805名の現職議員が在職している。貴族院は、二院制議会において上院が下院より大きい唯一の議会であり[22]、中国の全国人民代表大会に次いで世界で2番目に大きい立法府である。[23]
国王の演説は、国会開会式の際に貴族院議場で行われる。上院としての役割に加え、貴族院は法務貴族院を通じて、 2009年に最高裁判所が設立されるまで、英国司法制度における最終的な上訴裁判所としての役割を果たしていた。[24]貴族院には英国国教会の役割もあり、教会の法案は貴族院聖職者によって貴族院内で提出されなければならない。
歴史
今日の英国議会は、1706年の合同条約と、 1707年に条約を実施・執行し、イングランド議会とスコットランド議会に代わる 新しいグレートブリテン議会を創設した合同法を通じて、実質的にはイングランド議会の流れを汲んでいます。この新しい議会は、事実上、スコットランドを代表する45人の国会議員と16人の貴族が加わったイングランド議会の延長でした。
初期の歴史
貴族院は、11世紀初頭に遡る中世に国王に助言した「大会議」(マグヌム・コンシリウム)から発展した。 [25]この王室会議は、聖職者、貴族、イングランドとウェールズの諸州の代表者(後には自治区の代表者も)で構成されるようになった。最初のイングランド議会は、シモン・ド・モンフォールの議会(1265年開催)または「模範議会」(1295年開催)であると考えられており、大司教、司教、修道院長、伯爵、男爵、および州と自治区の代表者が含まれていた。
議会の権力はゆっくりと拡大し、君主制の強さが増したり弱まったりするにつれて変動しました。たとえば、エドワード 2 世(1307-1327) の治世のほとんどの期間、貴族が最高権力を握り、国王は弱く、州と町の代表はまったく無力でした。
エドワード2世の後継者エドワード3世の治世中、議会は明確に2つの議院に分かれていた。庶民院(州と町の代表者で構成)と貴族院(大司教、司教、修道院長、貴族で構成)。[26]議会の権威は拡大し続け、15世紀初頭には両院ともこれまでにないほどの権力を行使していた。領地の大地主と高位聖職者の大きな影響力により、貴族院は庶民院よりもはるかに強力であった。
15 世紀後半の薔薇戦争として知られる内戦の間、貴族の権力は衰退した。貴族の多くは戦場で殺されるか、戦争に参加したために処刑され、貴族の領地の多くが王室の手に落ちた。さらに、封建制は衰退し、男爵が統制する封建軍は時代遅れとなった。ヘンリー 7 世(1485-1509) は、「帝国冠」に象徴される君主の優位性を明確に確立した。君主の支配は、 16 世紀のテューダー朝の君主の統治の間も拡大し続けた。ヘンリー 8 世(1509-1547) の統治の間、王室の権力は頂点に達した。
貴族院は庶民院よりも権力を握っていたが、下院の影響力は拡大し続け、17世紀半ばには貴族院に対する下院の影響力は頂点に達した。国王と議会(主に庶民院)との対立は、最終的に1640年代のイングランド内戦へとつながった。1649年、チャールズ1世が敗北し処刑された後、イングランド共和国が宣言されたが、国は事実上、イングランド、スコットランド、アイルランドの護国卿オリバー・クロムウェルの全面的な支配下にあった。
貴族院はほぼ無力な機関となり、クロムウェルと下院の支持者たちが政府を支配した。1649年3月19日、議会法によって貴族院は廃止され、「イングランド下院は、あまりにも長い経験から、貴族院はイングランドの人々にとって役に立たず危険であると判断している」と宣言された。[27]貴族院は、1660年に議会が開かれ、王政が復活するまで再び召集されることはなかった。貴族院は議会のより強力な議院としての以前の地位に戻り、19世紀までその地位を占めた。




19世紀
19 世紀は貴族院にいくつかの変化が起きた時代でした。かつてはわずか 50 名ほどの議員しかいなかった貴族院は、ジョージ 3 世とその後継者たちが貴族を創設したことにより、議員数が大幅に増加しました。そのため、議会の貴族の個人的な影響力は弱まりました。
さらに、下院全体の権力は低下し、下院の権力は増大した。下院の優位性の向上において特に注目すべきは、1832年の改革法である。下院の選挙制度は民主的とはほど遠く、資産資格によって選挙民の規模が大きく制限され、多くの選挙区の境界は何世紀にもわたって変更されていなかった。マンチェスターのような都市全体では下院に代表者が 1 人もいなかったが、オールド セーラムの 11 人の有権者は、他の場所に住んでいても 2 人の国会議員を選出する古来の権利を保持していた。小さな自治区は賄賂を受けやすく、しばしばパトロンの支配下にあり、その候補者が選挙で必ず勝つことが保証されていた。貴族の中には多数の「ポケット自治区」のパトロンであった者もおり、そのため下院議員のかなりの部分を支配する者もいた。
1831 年に庶民院がこうした異常事態を是正する改革法案を可決したとき、貴族院はこの提案を拒否した。しかし、1832 年に法案が 2 度目に拒否されたにもかかわらず、改革という国民の主張は内閣によって放棄されなかった。首相のチャールズ グレイ (第 2 代グレイ伯爵) は、貴族院での法案反対を圧倒するために、改革派貴族を 80 人ほど新たに創設するよう国王に助言した。ウィリアム 4 世は当初、貴族院の反対を事実上脅かすこの提案に難色を示したが、最終的には譲歩した。
しかし、新しい貴族院が創設される前に、法案に反対した貴族院議員は敗北を認め、投票を棄権したため、法案は可決された。この危機は貴族院の政治的影響力にダメージを与えたが、完全に消滅させたわけではなかった。1868年に貴族院自らが重要な改革を行い、代理投票を廃止する議事規則を変更し、貴族院議員が出席せずに投票することを禁止した。[28] 19世紀を通じて上院の権限は段階的に縮小され、20世紀には1911年議会法で頂点に達し、庶民院が徐々に強力な国会となっていった。
20世紀

貴族院の地位は、 1906年に自由党政権が誕生した後、再び議論の最前線に返り咲いた。1909年、財務大臣デイヴィッド・ロイド・ジョージは、裕福な地主を対象とした土地税を提案する「人民予算」を庶民院に提出した。しかし、この国民の支持を得た法案は、保守派が多数を占める貴族院で否決された。[29]
貴族院の権限を選挙戦の主要争点とした自由党は、 1910年1月に辛勝して再選を果たした。自由党は貴族院での支持をほとんど失っており、貴族院は自由党の法案を日常的に否決していた。そこで首相HHアスキスは貴族院の権限を大幅に縮小することを提案した。1910年12月に再度総選挙が行われ、ジョージ5世が渋々ながら、必要なら貴族院の反対を克服するのに十分な数の自由党貴族を新たに創設すると約束したことで、アスキス政権は貴族院の権限を縮小する法案の可決を確保した。[30] 1911年議会法は、貴族院が法案を否決したり、庶民院が受け入れできない形で修正したりする権限を事実上廃止し、ほとんどの法案は3回の議会会期または2暦年を超えて延期することはできないとした。これは恒久的な解決策となることを意図したものではなく、より包括的な改革が計画された。[31] [32]しかし、どちらの政党も熱心に改革を追求しなかったため、貴族院は主に世襲制のままとなった。1949年の議会法は、貴族院の延期権限をさらに2会期または1年に縮小した。1958年、貴族院の主に世襲制の性質は、数的制限のない終身男爵の創設を認可した1958年終身貴族法によって変更された。その後、終身貴族の数は一定の割合ではなかったものの、徐々に増加した。[33]
労働党は、20世紀の大半、階級特権に対する党の歴史的な反対に基づき、貴族院を廃止するか、少なくとも世襲要素を排除することを公約としていた。1968年、ハロルド・ウィルソンの労働党政権は、世襲貴族が貴族院に留まり議論に参加することは認められるが投票はできないという制度を導入することで貴族院を改革しようとした。しかし、この計画は、伝統主義保守党員(エノック・パウエルなど)と、上院の全面廃止を主張し続けた労働党員(マイケル・フットなど)の連合により、下院で否決された。
1980年にフットが労働党の党首になると、貴族院の廃止が党の議題に上がったが、後継者のニール・キノックの下では、代わりに上院の改革が提案された。その間、新しい世襲貴族の創設(王族を除く)は、1980年代の保守党マーガレット・サッチャー首相の政権下で創設された3つの貴族を除いて中止された。
世襲貴族の中には無関心な者もいたが、労働党の明確な方針は、何十年も貴族院の専門家とみなされていた第7代スードリー男爵マーリン・ハンベリー=トレイシーの目に留まった。1979年12月、保守党月曜クラブは「貴族院改革 ― なぜ貴族院に手を加えるのか? 」と題する彼の長文論文を発表し、1980年7月には「モナーキスト」誌に「なぜ貴族院を改革または廃止するのか?」と題するスードリーの別の論文が掲載された。[34] 1990年には、彼は月曜クラブ向けに「貴族院の維持」と題する小冊子を執筆した。
21世紀
2019年、ナオミ・エレンボーゲンによる7か月に及ぶ調査で、下院職員の5人に1人がいじめや嫌がらせを経験していたが、報復を恐れて報告していなかったことが判明した。[35]これに先立ち、自由民主党のアンソニー・レスター(ハーンヒルのレスター卿)を含む、貴族院議員が地位を利用して女性に性的嫌がらせや虐待を行った事件がいくつかあった。[36] [37]
2020年、ジョンソン政権は、この地域を「再接続」するために、貴族院をロンドンからイングランド北部の都市、おそらくヨークかミッドランド地方のバーミンガムに移転することを検討した。移転した場合に国王の演説がどのように行われるかは不明であった。 [38] [39] [40]このアイデアは多くの貴族から否定的に受け止められた。[41]
貴族院改革
1832年から1928年にかけての改革法に始まるイギリスにおける民主政治の到来とともに、貴族院は時代錯誤とみなされるようになった。貴族院を改革しようとする多くの試みがなされ、そのいくつかは成功した。最も有名なのは1999年の世襲貴族の大半の排除である。2024年現在、労働党の政策は貴族院を廃止し、労働党政権の最初の任期中ではないものの、選挙で選ばれる第二院に置き換えることである[42]。[43]
女性の初入学
1958年まで貴族院には女性がいなかったが、 1958年終身貴族法の成立により少数の女性が議院に加わった。その一人が第2代レイヴンズデール男爵夫人アイリーン・カーゾンで、彼女は1925年に父親の貴族位を継承し、議席を得るために終身貴族となった。一部では1920年代にまで遡る運動の後、1963年貴族法の成立により、さらに12人の世襲貴族の女性が議席を獲得した。
新しい労働党の時代
労働党は1997年の総選挙のマニフェストに、貴族院から世襲貴族を排除することを公約に盛り込んだ。[44]労働党はトニー・ブレア政権下で1997年の選挙に勝利し、伝統的な貴族院の終焉をもたらした。労働党政権は貴族院改革の第一歩として、すべての世襲貴族を上院から追放する法案を提出した。しかし、妥協案として、改革が完了するまで92名の世襲貴族の残留を認めることに同意した。こうして、1999年貴族院法(その条項については下記を参照)に基づいて92名を除くすべての世襲貴族が追放され、貴族院は主に任命議院となった。
しかし、1999年以降、さらなる改革は行われていない。2000年、ウェイクハム委員会は貴族院に20%の選出要素を導入することを提案したが、この計画は広く批判された。[45]議会合同委員会は2001年にこの問題を解決するために設置されたが、結論には至らず、代わりに議会に7つの選択肢(完全任命、20%選出、40%選出、50%選出、60%選出、80%選出、完全選出)を与えた。2003年2月の混乱した一連の投票で、これらの選択肢はすべて否決されたが、80%選出の選択肢は下院でわずか3票差で否決された。[46]完全な廃止を支持する社会党議員は、すべての選択肢に反対票を投じた。[47]
2005年、ケネス・クラーク、ポール・タイラー、トニー・ライト、ジョージ・ヤング、ロビン・クックの超党派の有力国会議員グループが、貴族院議員の70%を単記移譲式投票制度で選出し、各議員は1期限りの長期任期とすることを提案する報告書を発表した。残りのほとんどは、「スキル、知識、経験」の融合を確保するため委員会によって任命されることになっていた。この提案も実施されなかった。 2005年の総選挙に向けて、主に選挙で選ばれた上院を主張するため、 「貴族院を選出」と呼ばれる超党派のキャンペーン活動が立ち上げられた。
2005年の選挙で、労働党は貴族院のさらなる改革を提案したが、具体的な内容は示さなかった。[48] 1997年以前は貴族院へのいかなる介入にも反対していた保守党は[49] 、 80%の貴族院議員選出を支持し、自由民主党は上院の完全選出を求めた。2006年、超党派委員会が合意形成を目指して貴族院改革について議論し、その調査結果は2007年初頭に公表された。[50]
2007年3月7日、庶民院議員は上院のさまざまな構成案について10回投票した。[51]貴族院の完全廃止、全員任命、20%選出、40%選出、50%選出、60%選出の案は、すべて次々に否決された。最終的に、80%選出の貴族院議員の投票は305票対267票で勝利し、全員選出の貴族院議員の投票は337票対224票とさらに大きな差で勝利した。重要なのは、この最後の投票が議員全体の過半数を代表していたことである。[52]
さらに、各投票区で投票した議員の名前を調べると、80%選出案に投票した305人のうち、211人が100%選出案に投票したことがわかる。この投票は80%の投票後に行われたが、その結果は100%の投票が行われた時点ですでにわかっていたため、可決された唯一の他の選択肢に投票した議員の間で、完全に選出された上院が明確に支持されていることが示された。しかし、それでもこれは単なる示唆的な投票であり、選出された貴族院の支持者には克服すべき多くの政治的および立法上のハードルが残っていた。貴族院はすぐにこの提案を拒否し、完全に任命された貴族院に投票した。[53]
2008年7月、ジャック・ストロー法務大臣兼大法官は庶民院に白書を提出し、貴族院を80~100%選出の議会に置き換え、その3分の1が毎回の総選挙で選出され、任期は約12~15年とする提案を行った。 [54]白書では、貴族院の構成員が上院議員から完全に分離されるため、「貴族院」という名称はもはや適切ではないと述べられた。さらに、上院を「連合王国上院」に改名することに超党派の合意があったが、議論が上院の役割に関するものであり、その名称に関するものではないことを確実にするため、白書は名称問題について中立的であったと説明した。
2009年11月30日、貴族院議員の行動規範が承認された。2010年3月30日と2014年6月12日には、いくつかの修正が承認された。[55]
下院の経費をめぐるスキャンダルはわずか6か月前に最高潮に達し、ブレイズドンのロイヤル男爵夫人ジャネット・ロイヤル率いる労働党指導部は、何らかの同情的な措置を講じる必要があると判断した。[要出典]
メグ・ラッセルは「貴族院はすでに改革されているか?」という記事の中で、正当な貴族院の3つの重要な特徴を述べている。第一に、政府が決定を下す前によく考えさせるだけの十分な立法権を貴族院が持っていなければならないということである。彼女は貴族院には、それを意味のあるものにするのに十分な権限があると主張した。(トニー・ブレアは就任1年目に貴族院で38回敗北したが、それは1999年の貴族院法による大改革の前の話である。)第二に、貴族院の構成について、メグ・ラッセルは、貴族院の構成は庶民院とは別物でなければならないと示唆した。そうでなければ貴族院は役に立たなくなる。第三に、貴族院の正当性が認識されていることである。彼女は「一般的に正当性は選挙によってもたらされる」と述べた。[56]
2010年~現在
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保守党と自由民主党の連立政権は、2010年の総選挙後、比例代表制で選出される、完全または大部分が選挙で選出される第二院の規定を明確に示すことで合意した。この提案は、2010年6月29日に議論を巻き起こした。暫定措置として、新しい貴族の任命は、前回の総選挙で各政党が獲得した票の割合を反映することになる。
貴族院改革法案の草案を含む貴族院改革の詳細な提案は、2011 年 5 月 17 日に発表されました。これには、300 人のメンバーからなるハイブリッドな院が含まれ、そのうち 80% は選挙で選ばれます。さらに 20% は任命され、イングランド国教会の大主教と司教のために予備のスペースが設けられます。提案によると、メンバーは 15 年の任期で再選されません。元国会議員は上院選挙に立候補できますが、上院議員が直ちに国会議員になることは許可されません。
提案の詳細は以下の通りである。[57]
- 上院は立法目的上、引き続き貴族院と呼ばれるものとする。
- 改革後の貴族院は 300 人の議員で構成され、そのうち 240 人は「選出議員」、60 人は任命された「無所属議員」です。最大 12 人の英国国教会の大司教と司教が、職権上の「霊的貴族」として貴族院に出席できます。
- 選出されたメンバーの任期は 15 年で、再選はできません。
- 改革された貴族院の選挙は庶民院の選挙と同時に行われるべきである。
- 選出議員は、比例代表制による単記移譲式投票制度を使用して選出される必要があります。
- 20 名の無所属議員 (3 分の 1) は、選挙で選ばれた議員と同時に、改革後の議会で議席に就き、同じ 15 年の任期を務める。
- 独立メンバーは、任命委員会の助言に基づいて首相が提案した後、国王によって任命される。
- 今後は、華族制度と参議院議員のつながりはなくなる。
- 貴族院の現在の権限は変更されず、庶民院は国会の主要院としての地位を維持する。
この提案は国会議員と貴族院議員からなる貴族院改革合同委員会で検討され、2012年4月23日に最終報告書が発表され、次のような提案がなされた。[58]
- 改革後の貴族院は450人の議員で構成されるべきである。
- クロスベンチャーを含む各政党グループは、移行期間中にどのメンバーを残すかを選択する必要があり、各グループに割り当てられるメンバーの割合は、一定期間中の出席率の高い議員の割合に基づいて決定される。
- 改革された貴族院では、最大 12 人の聖職貴族が保持される必要があります。
ニック・クレッグ副首相は、2011年5月17日に発表された提案[60]に基づいて、2012年6月27日に2012年貴族院改革法案を提出した[59] 。しかし、この法案は、保守党内の反対を受けて、2012年8月6日に政府によって廃案となった[61]。
2014年貴族院改革法
2013年にダン・バイルズ議員がいくつかの改革を導入するための議員立法を提出した。[62] 2014年貴族院改革法は2014年に国王の裁可を受けた。 [63]新法では以下の通りである。
- すべての貴族は、貴族院から引退または辞職することができます(これ以前は、貴族の位を放棄できるのは世襲貴族のみでした)。
- 出席しなかった場合は、同級生は失格となる場合があります。
- 1年以上の懲役刑を受けた場合、貴族は除名される可能性がある。[63]
貴族院(除名および停職)法 2015
2015年貴族院(除名および資格停止)法により、貴族院は議員を除名または資格停止する権限を与えられました。
2015年貴族院精神的(女性)法
この法律は、施行後10年間(2015年から2025年)、英国国教会の女性司教を男性司教よりも優先的に聖職貴族に任命する規定を設けた。これは、2014年に英国国教会が女性を司教に任命することを決定したことを受けて制定された。
2015年、この法律により、グロスター司教レイチェル・トレウィークが女性として初めて貴族院の霊的卿となった。 [64] 2023年現在、6人の女性司教が霊的卿を務めており、そのうち5人はこの法律により昇進した。[65]
サイズ

貴族院の規模は、その歴史を通じて大きく変化してきた。1707年の第1回グレートブリテン議会では、当時168名の議員で構成されていたイングランド貴族院に、スコットランド貴族を代表する16名のスコットランド貴族(合計184名の貴族)がウェストミンスターに加わった。 1801年には、アイルランド貴族を代表する28名のアイルランド議員が連合王国の最初の議会に加わった。貴族院は、18世紀の約220名の貴族から[66]拡大を続けた。1951/52年には約850名の貴族から[67] 、1958年の終身貴族法の制定と、 1963年の貴族法におけるすべてのスコットランド貴族と初の女性貴族の包含後に終身貴族が増え、さらにその数は増加した。 1999年10月には1,330人という記録的な数に達したが、その後、大規模な貴族院改革(1999年貴族院法)により、2000年3月までにその数は669人(ほとんどが終身貴族)にまで減少した。[68]
その後の数十年間で、議会の会員数は再び拡大し、2014年には会員数が800人を超え、同年の 貴族院改革法におけるさらなる改革を促した。
2011年4月、多くの貴族院の幹部を含む元有力政治家の超党派グループが、デイヴィッド・キャメロン首相に貴族の新設をやめるよう求めた。首相は2010年5月の就任から2016年7月の退任までに117人の貴族を新設しており、これは英国史上どの首相よりも速い昇格率である。同時に、彼の政府は下院議員を650人から600人に50人減らそうとしたが、失敗した。[69]
2014年8月、貴族院の座席数はわずか230 [70]から400 [71]程度であるにもかかわらず、貴族院には774人の現役議員がいた(これに停職や休職により出席も投票もできない54人が加わる)。これにより貴族院は民主主義国で最大の議院となった。[71] 2014年8月、ベティ・ブースロイド元下院議長は 貴族院の過密状態を緩和するため「年配の貴族は潔く引退すべき」と要請した。また、歴代首相が自らの政策を法律化するために下院を「ロビー活動の餌食」で埋め尽くしていると批判した。彼女のこの発言は、新たな貴族院が創設される数日前、そして2014年貴族院改革法が可決されてから数か月後になされた。この法律により、これまでは世襲貴族と司教にしかできなかった終身貴族の引退や議席の辞任が可能となった。[72] [73]
2015年8月、解散栄誉賞でさらに45人の貴族が創設され、貴族院の資格を持つ議員の総数は826人に増加した。「規模は重要か?」と題された報告書では、 BBCは「ますますその通りだ。評論家は、貴族院は中国の全国人民代表大会に次ぐ2番目に大きい立法府であり、米国(上院議員100人)、フランス(上院議員348人)、オーストラリア(上院議員76人)、カナダ(任命上院議員105人)、インド(250人)などの他の二院制民主主義国の上院を圧倒していると主張する。貴族院は北朝鮮の最高人民会議(687人)よりも大きい」と述べ、「貴族院の議席数はわずか400席で、同僚全員を収容するのに十分なスペースがないと不満を漏らし、特に重要な会議の際には、常に場所を争っていると述べている」と付け加えたが、「一方で、貴族院の擁護者は、貴族院は近年下院から提出された多くの法案を精査するという重要な仕事をしていると言う」と付け加えた。[74]
2016年後半、貴族院議員数が1,000人を超える恐れがあることから、過密問題を調査するために貴族院議長委員会が結成され、2017年10月に委員会は調査結果を発表した。2017年12月、貴族院は議論を行い、その報告書を概ね承認した。報告書では、貴族院議員数を600人に制限し、新貴族の任期を15年に制限し、新規任命には「2人退任、1人就任」の制限を設けることが提案された。2018年10月までに、貴族院議長委員会は、退任率が予想よりも高かったことを指摘し、貴族院行政・憲法問題特別委員会は、立法なしに達成された進歩を承認し、貴族院議員数の削減を称賛した。[75]
2014年の貴族院改革法の成立以降、100人近くの貴族が引退したことにより、2019年4月までに現役貴族の数は合計782人にまで減少し、そのうち665人が終身貴族であった。[76] [77]しかし、この合計数は、 1999年の貴族院法の施行により世襲貴族の大半がその地位から排除された後の2000年3月の貴族の669人よりは多い。これは提案されている600人という上限を大きく上回り、庶民院の650人の議員よりはまだ多い。
機能
立法機能
財政法案を除くほとんどの法案は、貴族院または庶民院のいずれかで提出することができます。
貴族院は立法を審議し、法案を修正または拒否する権限を持っています。しかし、庶民院で可決された法案を拒否する貴族院の権限は、議会法によって厳しく制限されています。これらの法の下では、特定の種類の法案は、貴族院の同意なしに国王の裁可を求めて提出することができます (つまり、庶民院は貴族院の拒否権を覆すことができます)。貴族院は、財政法案 (庶民院議長の見解では、国の課税または公的資金のみに関する法案) を 1 か月以上延期することはできません。
その他の公共法案は、貴族院によって 2 回の議会会期または 1 暦年を超えて延期することはできません。ただし、これらの規定は庶民院で提出された公共法案にのみ適用され、議会の任期を 5 年を超えて延長する効果はありません。さらに制限されているのはソールズベリー条約と呼ばれる憲法上の慣例で、貴族院は政府の選挙公約で約束された法案に反対しないことを意味します。
議会法以前から続いていた慣習により、貴族院は財政法案に関する限りさらに制約を受けています。貴族院は、課税または供給(財務省または国庫資金の供給)に関する法案を提出することも、課税または供給関連の条項を挿入するように法案を修正することもできません。(ただし、庶民院はしばしばその特権を放棄し、上院が財政的影響を伴う修正を行うことを認めています。)さらに、上院は供給法案を修正することはできません。貴族院は以前は歳入または供給に関する法案を拒否する絶対的な権限を保持していましたが、この権限は議会法によって制限されました。
政府との関係
貴族院は首相や政府の任期を統制していない。[20]下院だけが不信任決議を可決したり、補助金を撤回したりして首相に辞任を強制したり、選挙を実施したりすることができる。そのため、貴族院による政府への監視は限られている。
閣僚のほとんどは貴族院ではなく庶民院出身である。特に、1902年以降の首相はすべて下院議員であった[78]( 1963年に伯爵のまま首相となったアレック・ダグラス・ホームは、任期開始直後に貴族の地位を放棄し、庶民院議員に選出された)。近年では、(大法官と貴族院院内総務を除く)主要な閣僚ポストが貴族によって占められること は非常に稀である。
例外は次のとおりです:
- キャリントン卿は、1970年から1974年まで国防大臣、 1974年初めに2か月間エネルギー大臣、 1979年から1982年まで外務英連邦大臣を務めた。
- 貿易大臣および商務省総裁を務めたコックフィールド卿
- 1984年から1989年まで無任所大臣、雇用大臣、通商産業大臣、商務省総裁を務めたグラフハム卿
- 国際開発大臣を務めたエイモス男爵夫人
- 運輸大臣を務めたアドニス卿
- マンデルソン卿は、第一国務長官、ビジネス・イノベーション・技能大臣、貿易委員会総裁を務めた。
- ジョージ・ロバートソンは、国防長官を務めていた間、短期間貴族であったが、辞任してNATO事務総長に就任した。
- モルガン・オブ・コーツ男爵夫人は国会議員として文化・メディア・スポーツ大臣に任命されたが、貴族院議員に任命された後もその職を維持した。
- 元首相のキャメロン・ノートン卿は2023年に外務大臣および貴族院議員に任命された。 [79] [80]
1999年から2010年まで、イングランドおよびウェールズの法務長官は貴族院議員であったが、2024年7月現在[update]、法務長官は再び貴族院議員となっている。
貴族院は、下級大臣や政府メンバーの出所であり続けている。下院と同様に、貴族院にも政府院内幹事長と数名の院内幹事がいる。政府省庁が貴族院に大臣を擁していない、または大臣がいない場合は、政府院内幹事がそのスポークスマンとして活動する。[81]
元司法官
歴史的に、貴族院はいくつかの司法機能を担ってきました。最も顕著なのは、2009 年まで貴族院が英国法のほとんどの事例における最終審裁判所としての役割を果たしていたことです。2009 年 10 月 1 日以降、この役割は英国最高裁判所が担っています。
貴族院の司法機能は、国王の臣民の請願を扱う機関としてのローマ法王庁の古代の役割に由来しています。その機能は、貴族院全体ではなく、「法務貴族」の委員会によって実行されました。貴族院の司法業務の大半は、1876 年上訴管轄法に基づいてこの目的のために特別に任命された12 人の上訴貴族によって行われました。
司法機能は、上訴卿(高位の司法職に就いていた他の下院議員)によっても行使される。上訴卿または控訴卿は、75 歳を超えて司法官を務めることはできない。貴族院の司法業務は、上級上訴卿とその代理である第二上級上訴卿によって監督された。
The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extended, in civil and in criminal cases, to appeals from the courts of England and Wales, and of Northern Ireland. From Scotland, appeals were possible only in civil cases; Scotland's High Court of Justiciary is the highest court in criminal matters. The House of Lords was not the United Kingdom's only court of last resort; in some cases, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council performs such a function. The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, however, is relatively restricted; it encompasses appeals from ecclesiastical courts, disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975, and a few other minor matters. Issues related to devolution were transferred from the Privy Council to the Supreme Court in 2009.
The twelve Law Lords did not all hear every case; rather, after World War II cases were heard by panels known as Appellate Committees, each of which normally consisted of five members (selected by the Senior Lord). An Appellate Committee hearing an important case could consist of more than five members. Though Appellate Committees met in separate committee rooms, judgement was given in the Lords Chamber itself. No further appeal lay from the House of Lords, although the House of Lords could refer a "preliminary question" to the European Court of Justice in cases involving an element of European Union law, and a case could be brought at the European Court of Human Rights if the House of Lords did not provide a satisfactory remedy in cases where the European Convention on Human Rights was relevant.
A distinct judicial function—one in which the whole House used to participate—is that of trying impeachments. Impeachments were brought by the House of Commons, and tried in the House of Lords; a conviction required only a majority of the Lords voting. Impeachments, however, are to all intents and purposes obsolete; the last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, in 1806.
Similarly, the House of Lords was once the court that tried peers charged with high treason or felony. The House would be presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the Lord High Steward, an official especially appointed for the occasion of the trial. If Parliament was not in session, then peers could be tried in a separate court, known as the Lord High Steward's Court. Only peers, their wives, and their widows (unless remarried) were entitled to such trials; the Lords Spiritual were tried in ecclesiastical courts. In 1948, the right of peers to be tried in such special courts was abolished; now, they are tried in the regular courts.[82] The last such trial in the House was of Edward Russell, 26th Baron de Clifford, in 1935. An illustrative dramatisation circa 1928 of a trial of a peer (the fictional Duke of Denver) on a charge of murder (a felony) is portrayed in the 1972 BBC Television adaption of Dorothy L. Sayers' Lord Peter Wimsey mystery Clouds of Witness.
The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 resulted in the creation of a separate Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, to which the judicial function of the House of Lords, and some of the judicial functions of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, were transferred. In addition, the office of Lord Chancellor was reformed by the act, removing his ability to act as both a government minister and a judge. This was motivated in part by concerns about the historical admixture of legislative, judicial, and executive power. The new Supreme Court is located at Middlesex Guildhall.
Membership
Lords Spiritual
Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual.[83] Formerly, the Lords Spiritual were the majority in the English House of Lords,[84] comprising the church's archbishops, (diocesan) bishops, abbots, and those priors who were entitled to wear a mitre. After the English Reformation's high point in 1539, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, as the Dissolution of the Monasteries had just disposed of and suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In 1642, during the few gatherings of the Lords convened during English Interregnum which saw periodic war, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the Clergy Act 1661.
The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and by later Acts. The Lords Spiritual can now number no more than 26: these are the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester (who sit by right regardless of seniority), and the 21 longest-serving archbishops and bishops from other dioceses in the Church of England[85] (excluding the dioceses of Sodor and Man and Gibraltar in Europe, as these lie entirely outside the United Kingdom).[86] Following a change to the law in 2014 to allow women to be ordained archbishops and bishops, the Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015 was passed, which provides that whenever a vacancy arises among the Lords Spiritual during the ten years following the Act coming into force, the vacancy has to be filled by a woman, if one is eligible. This does not apply to the five archbishops and bishops who sit by right.
The current Lords Spiritual represent only the Church of England. Archbishops and bishops of the Church of Scotland historically sat in the Parliament of Scotland but were finally excluded in 1689 (after a number of previous exclusions) when the Church of Scotland became permanently Presbyterian. There are no longer archbishops and bishops in the Church of Scotland in the traditional sense of the word, and that Church has never sent members to sit in the Westminster House of Lords. The Church of Ireland did obtain representation in the House of Lords after the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801. Of the Church of Ireland's ecclesiastics, four (one archbishop and three bishops) were to sit at any one time, with the members rotating at the end of every parliamentary session (which normally lasted about one year). The Church of Ireland, however, was disestablished in 1871, and thereafter ceased to be represented by Lords Spiritual. Archbishops and bishops of Welsh sees in the Church of England originally sat in the House of Lords (after 1847, only if their seniority within the church entitled them to), but the Church in Wales ceased to be a part of the Church of England in 1920 and was simultaneously disestablished in Wales.[87] Accordingly, archbishops and bishops of the Church in Wales were no longer eligible to be appointed to the House as archbishops and bishops of the Church of England, but those already appointed remained.
Other ecclesiastics have sat in the House of Lords as Lords Temporal in recent times: Immanuel Jakobovits, Chief Rabbi of the United Synagogue (the largest organisation of Orthodox Jewish congregations in Britain) was appointed to the House of Lords (with the consent of Queen Elizabeth II, who acted on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher), as was his successor Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks.[88] Julia Neuberger is the senior rabbi to the West London Synagogue. In recognition of his work at reconciliation and in the peace process in Northern Ireland, the Archbishop of Armagh (the senior Anglican archbishop in Ireland), Robin Eames, was appointed to the Lords by John Major. Other clergy appointed include Donald Soper, Timothy Beaumont, and some Scottish clerics.
There have been no Roman Catholic clergy appointed, though it was rumoured that Cardinal Basil Hume and his successor Cardinal Cormac Murphy O'Connor were offered peerages by James Callaghan, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair respectively, but declined.[clarification needed] Cardinal Hume later accepted the Order of Merit, a personal appointment of Queen Elizabeth II, shortly before his death. Cardinal Murphy O'Connor for his part said he had his maiden speech ready, but ultimately did not accept a peerage. Future appointments of Catholic clergy to the Lords is unlikely, as since the promulgation of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, all Catholic clergy of the Latin Church have been discouraged from holding secular public office, and all diocesan priests and bishops have been completely prohibited from it (excepting only political offices of the Vatican City State).[89]
Former Archbishops of Canterbury, having reverted to the status of a regular bishop but no longer diocesans, are invariably given life peerages and sit as Lords Temporal.
By custom at least one of the archbishops or bishops reads prayers in each legislative day (a role taken by the chaplain in the Commons).[84] They often speak in debates; in 2004 Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, opened a debate into sentencing legislation.[84] Measures (proposed laws of the Church of England) must be put before the Lords, and the Lords Spiritual have a role in ensuring that this takes place.[84]
Lords Temporal
Hereditary peers
Since the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords. Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan, aligning themselves with one or another of the political parties that dominate the House of Commons. Publicly non-partisan Lords are called crossbenchers. Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hundred hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons (as well as Scottish Lords of Parliament). Such hereditary dignities can be created by the Crown; in modern times this is done on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day (except in the case of members of the Royal Family).
Holders of Scottish and Irish peerages were not always permitted to sit in the Lords. When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 Scottish representative peers to sit in the House of Lords; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election. A similar provision was enacted when Ireland merged with Great Britain in 1801 to form the United Kingdom; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 Irish representative peers, who were to retain office for life. Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922, when most of Ireland became an independent state known as the Irish Free State; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the Peerage Act 1963, under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House.
In 1999, the Labour government brought forward the House of Lords Act removing the right of several hundred hereditary peers to sit in the House. The Act provided, as a measure intended to be temporary, that 92 people would continue to sit in the Lords by virtue of hereditary peerages, and this is still in effect.
Of the 92, two remain in the House of Lords because they hold royal offices connected with Parliament: the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain. Of the remaining ninety peers sitting in the Lords by virtue of a hereditary peerage, 15 are elected by the whole House and 75 are chosen by fellow hereditary peers in the House of Lords, grouped by party. (A holder of a hereditary peerage who is given a life peerage becomes a member of the House of Lords without a need for a by-election.) The exclusion of other hereditary peers removed Charles, then Prince of Wales (who was also Earl of Chester) and all other royal peers, including Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh; Prince Andrew, Duke of York; Prince Edward, then Earl of Wessex; Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester; and Prince Edward, Duke of Kent.
The number of hereditary peers to be chosen by a political group reflects the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that group (see current composition below) in 1999. When an elected hereditary peer dies, a by-election is held, with a variant of the Alternative Vote system being used. If the recently deceased hereditary peer had been elected by the whole House, then so are their replacement; a hereditary peer elected by a specific political group (including the non-aligned crossbenchers) is replaced by a vote of the hereditary peers already elected to the Lords belonging to that political group (whether elected by that group or by the whole house).
Lords of Appeal in Ordinary
Until 2009, the Lords Temporal also included the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they could exercise its judicial functions. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary were first appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. They were selected by the Prime Minister of the day, but were formally appointed by the Sovereign. A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary had to retire at the age of 70, or, if his term was extended by the government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord could not hear any further cases in the House of Lords.
The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who were no longer able to hear cases because of age restrictions) was limited to twelve, but could be changed by statutory instrument. By a convention of the House, Lords of Appeal in Ordinary did not take part in debates on new legislation, so as to maintain judicial independence. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary held their seats in the House of Lords for life, remaining as members even after reaching the judicial retirement age of 70 or 75. Former Lord Chancellors and holders of other high judicial office could also sit as Law Lords under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, although in practice this right was only rarely exercised.
Under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary when the Act came into effect in 2009 became judges of the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and were then barred from sitting or voting in the House of Lords until they had retired as judges. One of the main justifications for the new Supreme Court was to establish a separation of powers between the judiciary and the legislature. It is therefore unlikely that future appointees to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom will be made Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.[90]
Life peers
The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are life peers. As of March 2024,[update] there are 670 life peers eligible to vote in the House.[77] Life peers rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the Life Peerages Act 1958. Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister or the House of Lords Appointments Commission. By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to nominate some life peers, so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords. Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by the independent House of Lords Appointments Commission.
In 2000 the government announced that it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under Dennis Stevenson, Lord Stevenson of Coddenham, to select fifteen so-called "people's peers" for life peerages. However, when the choices were announced in April 2001, from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were "ordinary people" as some had originally hoped.[91]
Qualifications
Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords. No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21.[92] Furthermore, only United Kingdom, Irish and Commonwealth citizens may sit in the House of Lords.[93] The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, and prior to the British Nationality Act 1948, only natural-born subjects qualified.[94]
Additionally, some bankruptcy-related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House. Subjects of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or a sequestered estate (in Scotland) are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords. Individuals convicted of high treason are prohibited from sitting in the House of Lords until completion of their full term of imprisonment. An exception applies, however, if the individual convicted of high treason receives a full pardon. An individual serving a prison sentence for an offence other than high treason is not automatically disqualified.
Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act 1958,[95] passed to address the declining number of active members, made possible the creation of peerages for life. Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed. However, female hereditary peers continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963.[96] Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999,[97] female hereditary peers remain eligible for election to the Upper House; until her resignation on 1 May 2020, there was one (Margaret of Mar, 31st Countess of Mar) among the 90 hereditary peers who continue to sit. After Barbara Wootton became one of the first four life peers appointed under the Life Peerages Act 1958, she requested that she not be referred to as "peeress", believing that the term failed to distinguish female peers from the mere wives of peers.[98]
Cash for peerages
The Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925[99] made it illegal for a peerage, or other honour, to be bought or sold. Nonetheless, there have been repeated allegations that life peerages (and thus membership of the House of Lords) have been made available to major political donors in exchange for donations. The most prominent example, the Cash for Honours scandal in 2006, saw a police investigation, with no charges being brought. A 2015 study found that of 303 people nominated for peerages in the period 2005–2014, a total of 211 were former senior figures within politics (including former MPs), or were non-political appointments. Of the remaining 92 political appointments from outside public life, 27 had made significant donations to political parties. The authors concluded firstly that nominees from outside public life were much more likely to have made large gifts than peers nominated after prior political or public service. They also found that significant donors to parties were far more likely to be nominated for peerages than other party members.[100]
Removal from House membership
Traditionally there was no mechanism by which members could resign or be removed from the House of Lords (compare the situation as regards resignation from the House of Commons). The Peerage Act 1963 permitted a person to disclaim their newly inherited peerage (within certain time limits); this meant that such a person could effectively renounce their membership of the Lords. This might be done in order to remain or become qualified to sit in the House of Commons, as in the case of Tony Benn (formerly the second Viscount Stansgate), who had campaigned for such a change.
The House of Lords Reform Act 2014[101] made provision for members' resignation from the House, removal for non-attendance, and automatic expulsion upon conviction for a serious criminal offence (if resulting in a jail sentence of at least one year). In June 2015, under the House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015,[102] the House's Standing Orders may provide for the expulsion or suspension of a member upon a resolution of the House.
In November 2020, Nazir Ahmed, Lord Ahmed retired from the House of Lords, having seen a Lords Conduct Committee report recommending he be expelled.[103] In December the same year, Lord Maginnis was suspended from the House for 18 months.[104]
Officers
Traditionally the House of Lords did not elect its own speaker, unlike the House of Commons; rather, the ex officio presiding officer was the Lord Chancellor. With the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the post of Lord Speaker was created, a position to which a peer is elected by the House and subsequently appointed by the Crown. The first Lord Speaker, elected on 4 May 2006, was Helene Hayman, Baroness Hayman, a former Labour peer. As the Speaker is expected to be an impartial presiding officer, Hayman resigned from the Labour Party.[105] In 2011, Frances D'Souza, Baroness D'Souza was elected as the second Lord Speaker, replacing Hayman in September 2011.[106] D'Souza was in turn succeeded by Norman Fowler, Lord Fowler in September 2016, who served as Lord Speaker until his resignation in April 2021. He was succeeded as Lord Speaker by John McFall, Lord McFall of Alcluith, who is the incumbent Lord Speaker.
This reform of the post of Lord Chancellor was made due to the perceived constitutional anomalies inherent in the role. The Lord Chancellor was not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department, is now called the Ministry of Justice. The Lord Chancellor is no longer the head of the judiciary of England and Wales. Hitherto, the Lord Chancellor was part of all three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial.
The overlap of the legislative and executive roles is a characteristic of the Westminster system, as the entire cabinet consists of members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords; however, in June 2003, the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor because of the office's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities. The abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 was thus amended to preserve the office of Lord Chancellor. The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords, and therefore allows the House of Lords to elect a speaker of their own.

The lord speaker may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies. The chairman of committees, the principal deputy chairman of committees, and several chairmen are all deputies to the lord speaker, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself at the beginning of each session. By custom, the Crown appoints each chairman, principal deputy chairman and deputy chairman to the additional office of Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords.[107] There was previously no legal requirement that the lord chancellor or a deputy speaker be a member of the House of Lords (though the same has long been customary).
Whilst presiding over the House of Lords, the lord chancellor traditionally wore ceremonial black and gold robes. Robes of black and gold are now worn by the lord chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice in the House of Commons, on ceremonial occasions. This is no longer a requirement for the lord speaker except for state occasions outside of the chamber. The speaker or deputy speaker sits on the Woolsack, a large red seat stuffed with wool, at the front of the Lords Chamber.
When the House of Lords resolves itself into committee (see below), the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees presides, not from the Woolsack, but from a chair at the Table of the House. The presiding officer has little power compared to the Speaker of the House of Commons. The presiding officer only acts as the mouthpiece of the House, performing duties such as announcing the results of votes. This is because, unlike in the House of Commons where all statements are directed to "Mr/Madam Speaker", in the House of Lords they are directed to "My Lords"; i.e., the entire body of the House.
The Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker cannot determine which members may speak, or discipline members for violating the rules of the House; these measures may be taken only by the House itself. Unlike the politically neutral Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor and Deputy Speakers originally remained members of their respective parties, and were permitted to participate in debate; however, this is no longer true of the new role of Lord Speaker.
Another officer of the body is the Leader of the House of Lords, a peer selected by the Prime Minister. The Leader of the House is responsible for steering Government bills through the House of Lords, and is a member of the Cabinet. The Leader also advises the House on proper procedure when necessary, but such advice is merely informal, rather than official and binding. A Deputy Leader is also appointed by the Prime Minister, and takes the place of an absent or unavailable leader.
The Clerk of the Parliaments is the chief clerk and officer of the House of Lords (but is not a member of the House itself). The Clerk, who is appointed by the Crown, advises the presiding officer on the rules of the House, signs orders and official communications, endorses bills, and is the keeper of the official records of both Houses of Parliament. Moreover, the Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for arranging by-elections of hereditary peers when necessary. The deputies of the Clerk of the Parliaments (the Clerk Assistant and the Reading Clerk) are appointed by the Lord Speaker, subject to the House's approval.
The Gentleman or Lady Usher of the Black Rod is also an officer of the House; they take their title from the symbol of their office, a black rod. Black Rod (as the Gentleman/Lady Usher is normally known) is responsible for ceremonial arrangements, is in charge of the House's doorkeepers, and may (upon the order of the House) take action to end disorder or disturbance in the Chamber. Black Rod also holds the office of Serjeant-at-Arms of the House of Lords, and in this capacity attends upon the Lord Speaker. The Gentleman or Lady Usher of the Black Rod's duties may be delegated to the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod or to the Assistant Serjeant-at-Arms.
Procedure


The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red. The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left. Crossbenchers sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack.[108]
The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the State Opening of Parliament, held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During the State Opening, the Sovereign, seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session.
In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons. If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion. Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole ("My Lords") rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House). Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as "you"), but rather use third person forms such as "the noble Duke", "the noble Earl", "the noble Lord", "my noble friend", "The most Reverend Primate", etc.
Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end. Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion "that the noble Lord be no longer heard". It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion "that the Question be now put". This procedure is known as Closure, and is extremely rare. Six closure motions were passed on 4 April 2019 to significant media attention as part of consideration of a private member's bill concerning the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union.[109]
Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either "content" (in favour of the motion) or "not content" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a division follows.
Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the content lobby or the not-content lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords. The Lord Speaker may not take part in the vote. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House.
If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it. The quorum of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation. If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid.
Special arrangements were made during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic to allow some duties to be carried out online.[110]
Disciplinary powers
By contrast with the House of Commons, the House of Lords has not until recently had an established procedure for imposing sanctions on its members. When a cash for influence scandal was referred to the Committee of Privileges in January 2009, the Leader of the House of Lords also asked the Privileges Committee to report on what sanctions the House had against its members.[111] After seeking advice from the Attorney General for England and Wales and the former Lord Chancellor James Mackay, Lord Mackay of Clashfern, the committee decided that the House "possessed an inherent power" to suspend errant members, although not to withhold a writ of summons nor to expel a member permanently.[112] When the House subsequently suspended Peter Truscott, Lord Truscott and Tom Taylor, Lord Taylor of Blackburn for their role in the scandal, they were the first to meet this fate since 1642.[113]
Recent changes have expanded the disciplinary powers of the House. Section 3 of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014 now provides that any member of the House of Lords convicted of a crime and sentenced to imprisonment for more than one year loses their seat. The House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 allows the House to set up procedures to suspend, and to expel, its members.
Regulation of behaviour in the chamber
There are two motions which have grown up through custom and practice and which govern questionable conduct within the House. They are brought into play by a member standing up, possibly intervening on another member, and moving the motion without notice. When the debate is getting excessively heated, it is open to a member to move "that the Standing Order on Asperity of Speech be read by the Clerk". The motion can be debated,[114] but if agreed by the House, the Clerk of the Parliaments will read Standing Order 32 which provides "That all personal, sharp, or taxing speeches be forborn".[115] The Journals of the House of Lords record only four instances on which the House has ordered the Standing Order to be read since the procedure was invented in 1871.[116]
For more serious problems with an individual Lord, the option is available to move "That the noble Lord be no longer heard". This motion also is debatable, and the debate which ensues has sometimes offered a chance for the member whose conduct has brought it about to come to order so that the motion can be withdrawn. If the motion is passed, its effect is to prevent the member from continuing their speech on the motion then under debate.[117] The Journals identify eleven occasions on which this motion has been moved since 1884; four were eventually withdrawn, one was voted down, and six were passed.[118]
Leave of absence
In 1958, to counter criticism that some peers only appeared at major decisions in the House and thereby particular votes were swayed, the Standing Orders of the House of Lords were enhanced.[119] Peers who did not wish to attend meetings regularly or were prevented by ill health, age or further reasons, were now able to request leave of absence.[120] During the granted time a peer is expected not to visit the House's meetings until either its expiration or termination, announced at least a month prior to their return.[121]
Attendance allowance
Via a new financial support system introduced in 2010, members of the House of Lords can opt to receive an attendance allowance per sitting day of currently £342 (as of 2023; initially it was £300 in 2010), plus limited travel expenses. Peers can choose to receive a reduced attendance allowance of £171 per day instead, or none at all.[122] Prior to 2010, peers from outside London could claim an overnight allowance of £174.[123]
Committees
Unlike in the House of Commons, when the term committee is used to describe a stage of a bill, this committee does not take the form of a public bill committee, but what is described as Committee of the Whole House. It is made up of all members of the House of Lords, where any member is allowed to contribute to debates and provides for flexible rules of procedure. It is presided over by the Chairman of Committees.[124]
The term committee is also used to describe Grand Committee, where the same rules of procedure apply as in the main chamber, except that no divisions may take place. For this reason, business that is discussed in Grand Committee is usually uncontroversial and likely to be agreed unanimously.[125]
Public bills may also be committed to pre-legislative committees. A pre-legislative Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill. These committees are established in advance of the bill being laid before either the House of Lords or the House of Commons and can take evidence from the public. Such committees are rare and do not replace any of the usual stages of a bill, including committee stage.[126]
The House of Lords also has 15 Select committees. Typically, these are sessional committees, meaning that their members are appointed by the House at the beginning of each session, and continue to serve until the next parliamentary session begins. In practice, these are often permanent committees, which are re-established during every session. These committees are typically empowered to make reports to the House "from time to time", that is, whenever they wish. Other committees are ad-hoc committees, which are set up to investigate a specific issue. When they are set up by a motion in the House, the motion will set a deadline by which the Committee must report. After this date, the committee will cease to exist unless it is granted an extension. One example of this is the Committee on Public Service and Demographic Change.[127] The House of Lords may appoint a chairman for a committee; if it does not do so, the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees may preside instead. Most of the Select Committees are also granted the power to co-opt members, such as the European Union Committee.[128] The primary function of Select Committees is to scrutinise and investigate Government activities; to fulfil these aims, they are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Select Committees, but are more often sent to the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees.
The committee system of the House of Lords also includes several Domestic Committees, which supervise or consider the House's procedures and administration. One of the Domestic Committees is the Committee of Selection, which is responsible for assigning members to many of the House's other committees.
Current composition

There are currently 805 sitting members of the House of Lords,[1] of which 667 are life peers (as of 2 October 2023) [77] and 228 are women (see:Women in the House of Lords). An additional 26 Lords are ineligible to participate, including two peers who are constitutionally disqualified as members of the Judiciary.[129]
The House of Lords Act 1999 allocated 75 of the 92 hereditary peers to the parties based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that party in 1999:[92]
- Conservative Party: 42 peers
- Labour Party: 2 peers
- Liberal Democrats: 3 peers
- Crossbenchers: 28 peers
Of the initial 42 hereditary peers elected as Conservatives, one, David Verney, 21st Lord Willoughby de Broke, defected to UKIP, though he left the party in 2018.[1][130]
Fifteen hereditary peers are elected by the whole House, and the remaining hereditary peers are the two royal office-holders, the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain.[1]
A report in 2007 stated that many members of the Lords (particularly the life peers) do not attend regularly; the average daily attendance was around 408.[131]
While the number of hereditary peers is limited to 92, and that of Lords spiritual to 26, there is no maximum limit to the number of life peers who may be members of the House of Lords at any time.[132]
Gender imbalance
Although female representation in the Lords has risen each decade since 1960, the pace has slowed in recent years, with the number of women peers rising 1% since 2020. A report by the Unlock Democracy think tank found that if every woman ever made a peer was still alive and sitting in the House of Lords today, men would still outnumber women by nearly two to one. The report singled out Rishi Sunak's female appointment rates to the House of Lords, at 17% of his party's appointments as compared with 37.5% of Tory peers appointed under Truss, 20.9% by appointed under Johnson, 46.2% under May, and 30% under Cameron; the report also states that appointment rates under Labour were scarcely higher.[132]
Government leaders and ministers in the Lords
Leaders and chief whips
- The Baroness Smith of Basildon – Leader of the House of Lords and Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal (Cabinet member)
- The Lord Collins of Highbury – Deputy Leader of the House of Lords (unpaid)
- The Lord Kennedy of Southwark – Chief Whip of the House of Lords and Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms
- The Baroness Wheeler – Deputy Chief Whip of the House of Lords and Captain of the King's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard
Other ministers
- The Lord Hanson of Flint – Minister of State
- The Lord Vallance of Balham – Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation
- The Baroness Jones of Whitchurch – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Future Digital Economy and Online Safety
- The Baroness Jones of Whitchurch – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Legislation
- The Baroness Twycross – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Gambling
- The Baroness Baroness Hayman of Ullock – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State
- The Baroness Taylor of Stevenage – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Housing and Local Government
- The Lord Khan of Burnley – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Faith, Communities and Resettlement
Criticisms
There are several criticisms of the House of Lords, including:
- The appointments process, which has often been described as undemocratic. The current process means the House of Lords remains fully unelected and allows peers to hold their seats until death.[133]
- The makeup of the Lords does not reflect the social and demographic diversity of the UK, with under-representation of ethnic minorities and women when compared with the House of Commons,[134] and relative over-representation of people from South East England and people over 50.
- The House of Lords is often criticised for being too large, and thus too expensive. With almost 800 members it is the second-largest legislative house in the world, second only to the National People's Congress of China, and is much larger than Upper Houses in comparable countries.[135] The physical capacity of the chamber is only about 400 seats, which has led to "jostling for space".[136]
These criticisms have led some to question whether there is a need for a second house at all, and whether the bicameral system in British politics is still useful.[137]
See also
- Gunpowder Plot
- Constitution Committee
- History of reform of the House of Lords
- History of the constitution of the United Kingdom
- House of Lords Library
- Introduction (House of Lords) ceremony
- Lord-in-waiting
- List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted without the House of Lords' consent
- Parliament in the Making
- Parliamentary Archives
- Reform of the House of Lords
- Relocation of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Overseas counterparts
Extant
- House of Ariki of the Cook Islands
- House of Elders (Somaliland)
- Dewan Negara (Malaysia)
- Senate of Canada, modeled after the House of Lords and composed of 105 appointed senators.
- Senate (Lesotho), composed of 22 hereditary tribal chiefs and 11 King's nominees
- Senate of Zimbabwe, with 18 of 80 seats reserved for tribal chiefs
Defunct
- Irish House of Lords (existed 1297–1800)
- New Zealand Legislative Council
- Chamber of Peers (France)
- Chamber of Most Worthy Peers (Portugal)
- Chamber of Peers (Spain)
- Chamber of Princes (British India)
- House of Peers (Japan)
- Genrōin (Japan)
- Prussian House of Lords
- House of Lords (Austria)
- Senate of the Kingdom of Italy
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This major change had the effect of reducing the total membership of the House from 1,330 in October 1999 – the highest figure ever recorded – to 669 in March 2000
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Willoughby de Broke, Lord UK Independence Party
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taking the 2005–2006 session, the average attendance was around 408, or 56% of members.
- ^ a b Mason, Rowena (8 March 2024). "Sunak's record on appointing female peers from party worst since Major, analysis finds". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
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Notes
- ^ Formally The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament assembled.[2] It is also referred to as the House of Peers or the Lords Spiritual and Temporal by metonymy.[3] Within the House of Commons, it is euphemistically known as "another place" or "the other place".[4]
- ^ Life peerage announced but not yet conferred.
Bibliography
- Ballinger, Chris. The House of Lords 1911–2011: A Century of Non-reform (Bloomsbury, 2014).
- Carroll, Alex (2007). Constitutional and Administrative Law (4th ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-1231-3.
- Close, David H. "The Collapse of Resistance to Democracy: Conservatives, Adult Suffrage, and Second Chamber Reform, 1911–1928." Historical Journal 20.4 (1977): 893–918. online
- Dorey, Peter, and Alexandra Kelso. House of Lords reform since 1911: Must the Lords go? (Springer, 2011).
- Hayter, Paul (2007). Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords (21st ed.). Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Archived from the original on 19 December 2005. Retrieved 19 November 2004.
- Jones, Clyve, and David L. Jones, eds. Peers, Politics and Power: House of Lords, 1603–1911 (A&C Black, 1986).
- Jones, Harry (1912). Liberalism and the House of Lords: The Story of the Veto Battle, 1832–1911. London: Methuen.
- Jones, Bill; Kavanagh, Dennis; Moran, Michael; Norton, Philip (2007). Politics UK (6th ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-1-4058-2411-8.
- Loveland, Ian (2009). Constitutional Law, Administrative Law and Human Rights (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921974-2.
- Mell, Andrew; Radford, Simon; Thevoz, Seth Alexander (2015). Is there a market for peerages? Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Department of Economics discussion paper, No.744
- Norton, Philip. Reform of the House of Lords (Manchester UP, 2020).
- Radford, Simon; Mell, Andrew; Thevoz, Seth Alexander (2019). "'Lordy Me!' Can donations buy you a British peerage? A study in the link between party political funding and peerage nominations, 2005–2014", British Politics.
- Russell, Meg. The contemporary House of Lords: Westminster bicameralism revived (Oxford UP, 2013).
- Shell, Donald (2007). The House of Lords (3rd ed.). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5443-3.
- Smith, Ernest Anthony. The House of Lords in British politics and society, 1815–1911 (Longman, 1992).
- Smith, Philip Vernon (1884). (2nd ed.). London: ENGLAND OFFICE.
External links
- Official website
- Official House of Lords publications website Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- Archives of the House of Lords
- British House of Lords people from C-SPAN
