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The history of the United States from 1776 to 1789 was marked by the nation's transition from the American Revolutionary War to the establishment of a novel constitutional order.
As a result of the American Revolution, the thirteen British colonies emerged as a newly independent nation, the United States of America, between 1776 and 1789. Fighting in the American Revolutionary War started between colonial militias and the British Army in 1775. The Second Continental Congress agreed to the Lee Resolution on July 2, 1776, which formally created a new nation, and then issued the Declaration of Independence on July 4. The Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781 to form the Congress of the Confederation. Under the leadership of General George Washington, with later support from France, the Continental Army and Navy defeated the British military, securing the independence of the Thirteen Colonies. The Confederation period continued until 1789, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States, which remains the fundamental governing law of the United States.
The 1780s marked an economic downturn for the United States due to debts incurred during the Revolutionary War, Congress's inability to levy taxes, and significant inflation of the Continental dollar. Political essays such as Common Sense and The Federalist Papers had a major effect on American culture and public opinion. The Northwest Territory was created as the first federal territory in 1787, and a border dispute in this region prompted raids that escalated into the Northwest Indian War. The Revolution and the Confederation period are placed within the American Enlightenment, a period in which Age of Enlightenment ideas grew popular and prompted scientific advancement.
17世紀から18世紀にかけて、アメリカのイギリス植民地は、有益な放置制度の下でかなりの自治権を与えられていた。[ 2 ]この自治権は、1760年代にグレンヴィル内閣のいくつかの法律、例えば1765年の印紙法や宿営法によって挑戦を受けた。これらの法律は、植民地住民に対する国王の権威の性質に関して、イギリスと13植民地の間でイデオロギー的な対立を引き起こした。 [ 3 ]植民地住民の抗議は、イギリス憲法の下での平等な権利の要求として始まったが、論争が進むにつれて、彼らは明らかに共和主義的な政治的見解をとるようになった。[ 4 ]
1765年の印紙法以降、ロンドンとの紛争は激化した。1770年から1773年の間に通信委員会が結成され、イギリスの権威に反対する植民地住民を組織した。 [ 5 ]イギリスの茶への課税に反対する暴動が発生し、 1773年12月16日のボストン茶会事件で頂点に達した。この事件では、数十人の男が大量のイギリスの茶をボストン港に投げ捨てた。[ 6 ]イギリスはこれに対し、植民地、特にマサチューセッツに罰則を課す、さらに物議を醸す耐え難き諸法で応じた。これを受けて、植民地住民はイギリスの権威に反対する統一組織として、1774年9月5日に第1回大陸会議を招集した。アメリカ独立戦争は1775年4月19日、レキシントン・コンコードの戦いで始まった。[ 5 ]
第2回大陸会議は、 4月の武力衝突の余波でペンシルベニア州フィラデルフィアで開催されました。13の植民地すべてが代表者を派遣し、直ちに暫定政府として組織化を開始し、外交を統制し、各植民地に州として独自の憲法を制定するよう指示しました。[ 7 ] 1775年6月、戦闘経験を持つカリスマ的なバージニアの政治指導者ジョージ・ワシントンが、新たに組織された大陸軍の司令官に満場一致で任命されました。[ 8 ]ボストン作戦は、大陸軍がイギリス軍に占領されたボストンを包囲し、イギリス軍が1776年3月にノバスコシア州ハリファックスへ海路で撤退するまで続きました。 [ 9 ]北東部と南西部のケベック侵攻も、1770年代に大陸軍によって実行されました。[ 10 ] [ 11 ]
1776年7月2日、フィラデルフィアで開催された第二次大陸会議は、「アメリカ合衆国」として独立を宣言することを全会一致で決議した。1776年8月2日、大陸会議は独立宣言に署名した。第二次大陸会議は当初、独立を宣言するために結成されたのではなく、イギリス人としての権利を要求するために結成された。独立への支持は、イギリスが植民地の要求を拒否し、敵対関係が顕著になるにつれて、1775年と1776年に徐々に高まった。政治パンフレット「コモン・センス」は、独立への支持をさらに広めた。1776年5月、大陸会議は植民地がイギリスから独立して独自の政府を樹立することを勧告した。[ 12 ]
独立宣言の起草は、ジョン・アダムズ、トーマス・ジェファーソン、ロジャー・シャーマン、ロバート・リビングストン、ベンジャミン・フランクリンを含む5人委員会の責任で行われ、ジェファーソンが起草し、他の委員と議会全体によって修正された。宣言は、「すべての人間は平等に創造され」、「生命、自由、幸福の追求を含む、譲ることのできない一定の権利」を有し、「これらの権利を確保するために、政府は人々の間に設立され、その正当な権力は被治者の同意から得られる」と主張し、さらに植民地の王室に対する主な不満を列挙した。こうして、イギリスの権利を要求する反乱として始まったものが、普遍的な権利に基づく革命へと発展し、アメリカ人の政治的・社会的秩序全体を覆すことになった。ジェファーソンは、新たな議論を提起するのではなく、ジョン・ロックなどの以前の哲学者の議論を提示したいと表明した。[ 12 ]
独立宣言の署名者たちは、高度な教育を受け、裕福で、古い植民地の出身者であった。彼らの多くはプロテスタントで、イギリス系であった。[ 13 ]次の世紀には、独立宣言の署名は独立記念日として記念されることになる。[ 14 ]
The task of organizing the Continental Army fell to General Washington, and the Second Continental Congress oversaw military action through war boards.[15][16] At the onset of the war, the army had little equipment or formal training.[17] Washington assigned Prussian Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben to train the army, and the baron's military experience produced a strong military for the United States.[18] To supply the army, Washington pressured Congress for additional supplies, but Congress had no power to tax, and funding from each state was not compulsory and there was never a sufficient amount.[19]
The New York and New Jersey campaign began in July 1776 as British reinforcements landed in New York City. The British counteroffensive won the Battle of Long Island, and subsequent battles resulted in alternating American and British victories. The port of New York City and its strategic harbor remained the British political and military headquarters in America for the remainder of the war, and became the destination for Loyalist refugees from throughout. The Continental Army was routed to New Jersey, and the British army failed to take control of New England.[20] The campaign shifted to Washington's favor after he led a crossing of the Delaware River that resulted in a victory in the Battle of Trenton, followed immediately by another victory in the Battle of Princeton, boosting American morale.[21][22]
In early 1777, a grand British strategic plan, the Saratoga campaign, was drafted in London. The plan called for two British armies to converge on Albany, New York from the north and south, dividing the colonies in two and separating New England from the rest. General John Burgoyne led British soldiers from Montreal in June 1777, engaging in skirmishes with American forces. American General Horatio Gates was appointed as Northern Army commander.[23] The forces of Burgoyne and Gates fought in the Saratoga campaign, with the British forces surrendering after the Second Battle of Saratoga.[24] The forces of British commander William Howe were supposed to provide reinforcements from the south, but he instead engaged in the Philadelphia campaign, taking the capital city of Philadelphia.[25][26]
The American victory at Saratoga led the French into a military alliance with the United States through the Treaty of Alliance in 1778. France was soon joined by Spain and the Netherlands, both major naval powers with an interest in undermining British strength. Britain now faced a major European war, and the involvement of the French navy neutralized their previous dominance of the war on the sea. Britain was without allies and faced the prospect of invasion across the English Channel.[27][28]
Throughout the Revolutionary War, smaller battles and ambushes were fought west of the Appalachian Mountains along the southwestern area of Canada and in American territories. Fearing the expansion of the United States and encouraged by the British, several Native American tribes launched attacks against Americans. Battles and massacres took place between the Continental Army and Native American fighters as well as against non-combatants and farms.[29] In the final years of the war, Great Britain stopped providing much of its support for Native American tribes, and the United States won in the western theater with strict terms of surrender.[30]
Except for an attempt to take Charleston in 1776, Great Britain did not attack the southern states of Georgia or South Carolina in the early years of the war. Most fighting in the South had been carried out by the Cherokee. Following the failure at Saratoga, however, Great Britain moved its focus to the South, and the Capture of Savannah occurred in 1778. The United States had not been prepared for a campaign in the South, and American General Benjamin Lincoln was appointed to the South to raise a militia.[31] The Siege of Charleston took place in 1780, and the British captured this city as well.[32] North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia had higher Loyalist populations than other states, further contributing to British victories in the southern theater.[33] After the Siege of Charleston, British General Lord Cornwallis took charge of the British forces in the Southern United States.[34] Victory in the Battle of Camden in 1780 reiterated British control over the South.[35]
Cornwallis advanced his forces into North Carolina, depending on Loyalists to join his forces as he went, but few joined him. General Nathanael Greene routed the British forces, preventing them from taking North Carolina. Against his instructions to defend the occupied South, Cornwallis moved his forces north to Virginia. Greene's forces moved south and reclaimed Georgia and South Carolina.[36] Cornwallis positioned his forces in Yorktown, Virginia in hope of defeating the forces of the French General Lafayette. The French navy prevented the British navy from providing assistance in the Battle of the Chesapeake, and Washington and Lafayette's forces laid siege to Yorktown.[37] Cornwallis surrendered on October 19, 1781, effectively ending the American Revolutionary War.[38] King George III and Prime Minister Lord North wished to mount another campaign, but Parliament overruled them, forbidding any further conflict.[39]
King George III formally acknowledged American independence and ordered the end of hostilities on December 5, 1782.[40] Peace negotiations took place in Paris, with John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay representing the United States. Negotiations concluded with the Treaty of Paris, which legally recognized the United States as an independent country.[41] Great Britain agreed to give up portions of southwestern Canada, though the boundary with the rest of British Canada remained unsettled.[42] Some elements of the treaty were controversial among Americans, including those that recognized the monetary debts owed to Loyalists and those that critics felt challenged the status of each state government as a sovereign entity.[43]
On November 25, 1783, George Washington led a procession through New York City on horseback as the final British soldiers boarded their boats to leave the harbor. Victory celebrations were held in the city, and the day would be remembered as Evacuation Day.[44] On December 23, 1783, Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.[45] The Treaty of Paris was ratified by Congress on January 14, 1784.[46]
The Articles of Confederation were proposed by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and they were ratified on March 1, 1781. It replaced the administrative boards and appellate courts that Congress had created during the early stages of the Revolutionary War. While the Articles of Confederation granted certain powers to the Congress of the Confederation, they also imposed restrictions that made governance difficult.[47] These restrictions were by design, as many Americans feared that a strong central government would be too similar to the British monarchy. The powers of the central government were limited primarily to war, diplomacy, and resolving interstate disputes. It lacked powers to pass economic legislation, causing economic decline as it proved unable to pay its debts.[48] Acts of Congress required high majorities to be passed, and amendments to the Articles required unanimous approval by the states.[47]
Most governing was carried out by state governments during the Confederation Period.[47] Though Pennsylvania was the only state to use official political parties, informal partisanship developed across the new nation in the 1780s.[49] Divisions emerged over how powerful the central government should be, how debts should be managed, and how Western settlement should be carried out.[48] The factions disagreed on how democratic the nation should be, influenced by fears of both tyranny by elites and mob rule by the masses.[50]
The political and economic troubles caused civil conflict within the states. Mutinies occurred in Pennsylvania and New Jersey in January 1781, soldiers marched on the capital in June 1783, and a coup against General Washington was considered among military officers in Newburgh.[51] The unrest culminated in Shays' Rebellion in the winter of 1786–1787, in which protests against the handling of debts in Massachusetts led to an armed uprising.[52] The states declined to fund a military force, and Massachusetts was forced to fund its own state force.[53] Though Shays' Rebellion was short-lived, it became a strong argument for those in favor of reforming the national government.[54]
Congress oversaw foreign policy, but the states had the final say in their own foreign relations, with each state ratifying treaties individually.[42] Relations with Great Britain were still troubled after the war. Many states did not comply with the terms of the Treaty of Paris regarding the treatment of British nationals, and the British Army maintained a presence in the western territories. Britain also hurt American trade through restrictions on American products to promote Canadian growth.[47] The Shelburne ministry had been lenient in the negotiation of the Treaty of Paris, but this proved controversial, prompting a change in government that resulted in much colder relations with the United States.[42]
経済状況が悪化するにつれ、議会は戦争中に軍事支援を提供したフランス、スペイン、オランダへの債務を返済できなかった。スペインとの関係は、スペイン政府がミシシッピ川を封鎖したことでさらに悪化し、アメリカの輸送と貿易が妨げられた。[ 47 ]革命中は強力な同盟関係にあったにもかかわらず、フランスは連合国時代にはアメリカ合衆国にほとんど注意を払わなかった。アメリカ合衆国は1780年代にオランダ、スウェーデン、プロイセンとも貿易協定を結んだが、これらはイギリスに比べてアメリカの貿易のごく一部を占めるに過ぎなかった。[ 42 ]地中海では、アメリカの船は北アフリカのバルバリア海賊に直面した。議会はこの問題に対処するための資源が少なかったため、連合国時代には海賊対策はほとんど行われなかった。[ 55 ]モロッコとの和平交渉が行われたが、アルジェ、トリポリ、チュニスはアメリカ船の拿捕を容認し続けた。[ 42 ]
連合規約時代が進むにつれて、州間の経済的対立が激化し、連邦議会にはそれを阻止する権限がなかった。[ 56 ] 1786年までに、政府内の最も著名なアメリカ人の多くは、連合規約に基づく政府は、かつてイギリスが提供していた経済的および軍事的安全保障の両方を欠いているため不十分であると懸念を表明していた。[ 57 ]貿易問題に対処するために1786年にアナポリス会議が開催されたが、出席者は少なく、ほとんどの州は代表を派遣しなかった。ニュージャージー州の代表は州から広い裁量権を与えられており、これを利用して政府を完全に改革するための会議の提案を提出した。[ 56 ] 1787年2月、連邦議会は翌年5月に会議を開催することを決議し、連合規約に基づく政府制度に対する信頼が広く失われていることを示した。[ 48 ]
While there was not a clear objective before the convention, some delegates wished to establish a new central government that would have more power than Congress did under the Articles of Confederation. James Madison became the leader of these delegates, developing the Virginia Plan that would form the basis of the Constitution of the United States.[58] The convention began on May 25, 1787, after a sufficient number of delegates had arrived in Philadelphia.[59] The main issue at contention was the extent of power that would be transferred from the states to the federal government. Many state delegations, particularly that of Delaware, resisted centralization for fear that it would be dominated by the larger states.[60] Madison's Virginia Plan competed with the New Jersey Plan of William Paterson, which opposed proportional representation in favor of equal representation. The dispute was resolved with the Connecticut Compromise, which created a bicameral legislature.[61] The issue of slavery was also a concern, particularly in regard to whether slaves should be counted as citizens.[62]
The final draft of the Constitution was delivered by Gouverneur Morris on September 12, 1787. Written to correct the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution established the procedures and powers relating to Congress, the presidency, the courts, and how these offices related to the states. It also allowed for future amendments, acknowledged the debts incurred under the Articles of Confederation, and set the requirements for ratification.[63] The delegates signed the Constitution on September 17 and sent it to Congress, where it was approved and sent to the states for ratification.[64]
憲法を擁護した人々は連邦主義者と名乗り、すぐに全国で支持者を得た。最も影響力のある連邦主義者はアレクサンダー・ハミルトンとジェームズ・マディソンで、彼らは匿名で『ザ・フェデラリスト・ペーパーズ』を執筆した。これはニューヨークの新聞に掲載された85のエッセイからなるシリーズで、「パブリウス」というペンネームで書かれ、僅差で分裂していたニューヨーク州議会を説得するために書かれた。この論文はアメリカ合衆国にとって重要な文書となり、法学者によってしばしば引用されている。[ 65 ]新しい憲法に反対した人々は反連邦主義者として知られるようになった。彼らは概して国際的な視点よりも地域的な視点を持ち、商業や金融よりも農園や農場に関心があり、強力な州政府と弱い連邦政府を望んでいた。[ 66 ]
各州は憲法の批准について投票するための会議を開催した。批准支持者は、憲法を受け入れる可能性が高い州が最初に会議を開催するようにした。これは、早期の否決が他の州の批准を思いとどまらせることを恐れたためである。[ 67 ]小規模州は、中央集権的な政府が大規模州の権力を抑制する役割を果たすため、憲法を支持した。[ 68 ]デラウェア州とニュージャージー州は1787年に、ジョージア州は1788年1月2日に、いずれも全会一致で批准した。ペンシルベニア州、コネチカット州、メリーランド州、サウスカロライナ州は、1788年の冬から春にかけて、いずれも大多数で批准した。他の州ではより議論を呼んだ。マサチューセッツ州は187対168の僅差で批准した。ニューハンプシャー州は、1788年6月21日に憲法が発効するために必要な最後の批准を行った。[ 69 ]ニューヨーク州、バージニア州、マサチューセッツ州といった大州では、批准はより論争の的となった。[ 68 ]マディソンによる権利章典の約束によりバージニア州では批准が確保されたが、ニューヨーク州では、ニューヨークの政治を支配していたクリントン夫妻は、ハミルトンが30対27の投票で批准を確保したことで出し抜かれた。[ 70 ]ノースカロライナ州とロードアイランド州は、13州の中で最後に批准した州であり、新政府が活動を開始した後に批准した。[ 71 ]
The United States Electoral College met on February 4, 1789, to unanimously vote for George Washington in the first presidential election. The 1st United States Congress read the results on April 6,[72] and Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall on April 30.[73] A Bill of Rights was approved by the new Congress in September 1789 and took effect in December 1791.[74]
Settlement of Trans-Appalachia grew during the Revolutionary War, increasing from a few thousand to 25,000 settlers.[75] Westward expansion stirred enthusiasm even in those who did not move west, and many leading Americans, including Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, purchased lands in the west.[76]Land speculators founded groups like the Ohio Company, which acquired title to vast tracts of land in the west and often came into conflict with settlers.[77]
From 1780 to 1784, Congress held negotiations with Virginia to cede its western territory. An agreement took effect on March 1, 1784, creating the first national territory that was not part of any state.[47] Congress created a territorial government and set requirements for statehood with the Land Ordinance of 1784 and the Land Ordinance of 1785.
In 1787, Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, which granted Congress greater control of the region by establishing the Northwest Territory. Under the new arrangement, many of the former elected officials of the territory were instead appointed by Congress.[78] In order to attract Northern settlers, Congress outlawed slavery in the Northwest Territory, though it also passed a fugitive slave law to appease the Southern states.[79] The Old Southwest remained under the control of the southern states, and each state claimed to extend west to the Mississippi River. In 1784, settlers in western North Carolina sought statehood as the State of Franklin, but their efforts were denied by Congress, which did not want to set a precedent regarding the secession of states.[80]
During the Revolutionary War, Great Britain had aligned with many of the Native American tribes in its claimed territories to the west of the colonies. This was an escalation of the skirmishes that made up the American Indian Wars that had been prompted by land encroachment by colonists and raids by Native American tribes, such as the Shawnee tribes.[81] Pioneers responded to Native American attacks against colonial civilians by in turn attacking Native American civilians.[82] The British continued to supply arms to Native Americans after the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Between 1783 and 1787, hundreds of settlers died in low-level conflicts with Native Americans, and these conflicts discouraged further settlement.[83] By the end of the decade, the frontier was engulfed in the Northwest Indian War against the Northwestern Confederacy. These Native Americans sought the creation of an independent Indian barrier state with the support and under protection of the British, posing a major foreign policy challenge to the United States.[84] Though Great Britain had agreed to cede its western influence to the United States, it continued to provide weapons for the Northwestern Confederacy.[30] As Congress provided little military support against the Native Americans, most of the fighting was done by the settlers.[85] This war would continue until the signing of the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 that defined the boundary between the United States and the Native American tribes.[86]
アメリカ独立戦争は、13植民地の経済に大きな影響を及ぼした。大陸会議には課税権がなかったため、新しく設立された州政府に資金調達を依存し、州政府は戦争費用を賄うために増税を余儀なくされた。[ 87 ]また、労働者が愛国派と王党派の軍隊に入隊したため労働力不足が生じ、大西洋岸中部における数十年にわたる産業拡大の傾向が終焉を迎えた。労働力は自由労働者と奴隷労働者の両方で構成されていたが、年季奉公はアメリカ独立戦争の頃にはほぼ廃れていた。戦争による移民の減少により、経済成長はさらに鈍化した。[ 88 ]北米銀行は、 1781年に国内初の銀行として設立された。[ 89 ]
大陸会議は資金を増やすために独自の大陸通貨紙幣を発行したが、この通貨はすぐに価値が下落し、戦争の終結まで存続しなかった。中央集権的な通貨と経済政策の欠如は、憲法制定会議を開催するという決定の大きな要因となった。[ 87 ]戦争とインフレは軍と民間の両方に物資不足を引き起こした。こうした物資不足の間、民間人が群衆を作り、自分たちが公正な価格だと考えるものを提供しない店を略奪することはよくあった。[ 90 ]同様の問題は州政府も独自の負債を蓄積するにつれて悩まされたが、州は税金を課すことができ、経済危機が悪化するにつれて税金を大幅に増やした。[ 91 ]革命の初期の支持者はコーポラティズムと価格統制も支持したが、ほとんどの政治経済思想家はこれらの概念を拒否し、課税を伴う民主的な自由市場システムへの支持が高まった。[ 92 ]
The economy of the early United States was heavily agricultural, but it also involved other forms of resource extraction, such as lumber, fishing, and fur. Manufacturing was limited, though shipbuilding was a major industry. The revolution required American merchants to rebuild connections with global markets, as trade had previously been facilitated under the flag of Great Britain. The high tariffs that were common at the time limited profitability, but high demand for American goods allowed the United States to make up for the economic turmoil of the revolution.[93] When the war ended, the Treaty of Paris allowed British creditors to call in debts from the American market, triggering a depression.[94] The government was also in debt to France, the Netherlands, and Spain.[47] Many states raised taxes after the war to cover the expenses that it brought, prompting unrest, including that of Shays' Rebellion.[48]
Due to the close relation of American and British commerce, many traders renegotiated with British merchants after the war, and they facilitated American trade as they did under colonial rule.[93] Economic policies of individual states made domestic trade more difficult, as state governments often discriminated against merchants from other states. A national deficit occurred in 1786, and it continued to increase through the Confederation period.[47] By 1787, Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.[95]
1750年代までに、イギリスとは異なる独自のアメリカ文化がすでに形成されていた。簡素な服装や話し方が一般的で、これは植民地時代のピューリタンの基準に由来し、革命によって再確認された。18世紀のアメリカ合衆国では新聞や雑誌が急増したが、その多くは短期間しか発行されなかった。『アメリカの危機』、『コモン・センス』、『ザ・フェデラリスト・ペーパーズ』などの政治論文は、初期のアメリカ合衆国の形成に影響を与えた。J・ヘクター・セント・ジョン・ド・クレヴクールの『アメリカ農夫からの手紙』やトーマス・ジェファーソンの『バージニア州に関する覚書』など、革命に関する政治的概念を扱った長編書籍もあった。[ 96 ]社会的および政治的な思想は、しばしば詩を通して表現された。ジョン・トランブル、フィリップ・フレノー、ヒュー・ヘンリー・ブラッケンリッジなどの詩人は、独立したアメリカ合衆国についての国家主義的な思想を書いた。[ 96 ]ティモシー・ドワイトによる『カナンの征服』は、アメリカ合衆国初の叙事詩とされている。 『アナキアード』は、初期のアメリカ合衆国を風刺した著名な作品である。[ 97 ]アメリカ初の小説『共感の力』は、 1789年にウィリアム・ヒル・ブラウンによって出版された。[ 96 ]
初期のアメリカ合衆国では、演劇と劇場は物議を醸すものでした。植民地時代にはピューリタンによって演劇は非難され、大陸会議は1774年に演劇を正式に非難しました。革命期に上演された演劇は、典型的にはヨーロッパのものでした。[ 98 ]革命期に最も著名なアメリカ人劇作家はマーシー・オーティス・ウォーレンで、彼の戯曲には『The Adulateur』、『The Group 』 、『The Blockheads』などがあります。ヒュー・ヘンリー・ブラッケンリッジは、独立戦争を描いた歴史劇を2つ書きました。ジョン・リーコックは、ジョージ・ワシントンを登場人物として初めて登場させた戯曲『The Fall of British Tyranny』を書きました。独立戦争後、演劇の革新は衰退しましたが、これは1780年代の政治的・経済的混乱が一因でした。ウィリアム・ダンラップは、 1789年に『The Father』で劇作家としての多作なキャリアをスタートさせました。 [ 99 ]
Visual art was influenced by the literature of European aestheticians, including Charles Alphonse du Fresnoy, Roger de Piles, Jonathan Richardson, and Johann Joachim Winckelmann. Many American artists traveled abroad to learn art, particularly to London to learn under Benjamin West. John Trumbull and Charles Willson Peale were prominent painters in the first years of the United States; as supporters of republicanism, they are both known for their respective portraits of George Washington.[100]
Historians categorize the time of the American Revolution as part of a broader American Enlightenment, in which the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment began to influence American science and philosophy.[97][101] This included a shift away from religious groundings in philosophy. Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were prolific philosophic writers in this regard.[97]Reason: the Only Oracle of Man by Ethan Allen was an early challenge to the religious rejection of rationalism in the United States in 1784. Massachusetts formed a medical society in 1781, following the precedent set by New Jersey in 1766.[96]
The scientific community of the early United States was centered in Philadelphia, including the American Philosophical Society. Astronomy and taxonomy were two of the most prominent scientific fields at the time, and physicians of the revolutionary era often had a scientific background beyond medicine. Benjamin Franklin developed the study of electricity in the United States and discovered many of its properties. Many prominent scientists were immigrants from other countries, particularly Great Britain, which had a much larger scientific community.[102]
The colonial colleges already existed by the time of the American Revolution. These colleges were all male, and they were based on the ideas of education associated with the Enlightenment. State universities began to form after the end of the Revolutionary War, starting with the University of Georgia in 1785. African Americans and Native Americans were only rarely admitted to universities, though African American men in northern states sometimes formed literary societies.[103]
The population of the Thirteen Colonies was 2.5 million in 1776.[104] The first national census was taken in 1790, shortly after the end of the Confederation period. It found that the United States had a population of 3,929,214 residents with an average of 4.5 people per square mile. There were five cities with a population over 10,000 residents. The largest city was New York City with 33,131 residents, followed by Philadelphia, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore.[105]
During the revolutionary period, residents of the states were divided on whether to seek independence or to remain loyal to the British Empire.[106] Those who supported revolution came to be known as Whigs or Patriots,[107] while those favoring loyalty to Great Britain were known as Tories or Loyalists.[108] Loyalists were more common in the southern states.[33] Though much of the population was opposed to or neutral toward revolution in the early years of independence, the proportion of Patriots increased as the conflict progressed. Supporters of the British Empire commonly included merchants and farmers that felt they benefited from colonial rule as well as slaves that hoped loyalty to Britain would bring them freedom.[106] It proved controversial among Patriots when compensation to Loyalists became part of the peace agreement after the Revolutionary War.[43]
Those who fought as members of the Continental Army benefited from the revolution, as they were predominantly working-class men who were able to meaningfully influence their government for the first time. Women of the revolution similarly desired increased influence in politics, but they were restricted from meaningful participation.[109] Historians disagree on the extent that the revolution affected women that assisted the Patriots.[110]
アメリカ独立革命が進行中、多くの教会や牧師が積極的に反対の立場を表明した。ジョン・アダムズは、英国国教会をイギリス議会が植民地を支配するための手段だと考えていた。[ 111 ]ロイヤリストと関係のある英国国教会の聖職者や、王室のために義務付けられた祈りを続けた聖職者は嫌がらせを受けたり追放されたりした。建国の父ベンジャミン・ラッシュはかつて、一部のロイヤリストが革命に反対したのは、革命によって長老派教会に権力が渡ることを恐れたからだと述べた。[ 112 ] 1775年から1783年にかけて、13植民地の英国国教会の牧師の数は311人から141人に減少した。[ 113 ]
愛国派が軍事、財政、外交面でカトリックのフランスに頼ったことで、反カトリック的な言説は急激に減少した。独立戦争によってローマ教皇への注目が薄れ、ジョージ3世がアメリカ人の心の中で最も目立つ外国の敵となった。反カトリック主義は王党派の間では依然として根強く残っていた。1780年代までに、カトリック教徒はそれまで差別されていたニューイングランドのすべての州で法的寛容を受けるようになった。[ 114 ]
奴隷制度という論争の的となっている問題は、独立宣言の起草中に取り上げられました。ジェファーソンの原案では、ジョージ3世が奴隷貿易を支持していることを非難していましたが、南部代表がその文言を削除しました。[ 12 ]バージニア州知事ダンモア卿は1775年にダンモア宣言を発布し、イギリス軍と共に戦った奴隷に自由を与えました。ヘンリー・クリントン将軍も1779年に同様の宣言を発布しました。数千人の奴隷が独立戦争で黒人ロイヤリストとして従軍しました。 [ 115 ]同様に、大陸軍は1777年に奴隷を含む黒人男性の従軍を認めました。また、軍に入隊した奴隷の自由も保証しましたが、南部諸州はそのような申し出を阻止しようとしました。[ 116 ]
アメリカ独立革命は奴隷制度の問題をより顕著にし、一部の作家は奴隷を所有しながら自由を支持するのは偽善的だと批判し始め、その結果、奴隷制度はアメリカ北部で人気を失った。[ 117 ] また、多くの奴隷も特に北部で愛国派の支持を表明し、これらの州が奴隷制度を廃止する傾向をさらに強めた。[ 118 ] 1780年、ペンシルベニア州は、同年3月1日以降に生まれた人々の奴隷化を禁止し、同日以降に奴隷として生まれた子供が28歳になった時点で自由を保障する法律を制定した。コネチカット州とロードアイランド州は1784年に同様の条件で奴隷制度を廃止した。[ 119 ]他の北部諸州では、奴隷たちは奴隷制度に対する抗議と訴訟の両方で活発に活動し、1780年代末までに、ニュージャージー州とニューヨーク州を除くすべての北部諸州で自由を求めて訴訟を起こし、勝訴した。[ 116 ]
南部諸州の奴隷は人口のかなり大きな割合を占めていたが、革命を鑑みて大きな自由は与えられなかった。[ 120 ]南部における奴隷制度の変化は小規模で、いくつかの州で大西洋奴隷貿易が終結し、奴隷所有者が遺言で奴隷を解放できる法律が制定された。1780年代を通じて、南部の自由黒人の数は約4,000人から60,000人に増加した。[ 121 ]
憲法の起草中、奴隷制度の問題は激しく議論された。憲法制定会議の代表者たちは奴隷制度の道徳性について意見が分かれ、各州への比例代表制の割り当てにおいて奴隷を人口に含めるべきかどうかについても議論があった。この論争は、米国国勢調査において奴隷を人口の5分の3として数えるという「 5分の3妥協」によって解決された。[ 122 ]
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