Deep state

In Medieval Europe and early modern Europe, the fear of hidden enemies often manifested as suspicions of witchcraft and demonic conspiracies. The Malleus Maleficarum (1487), one of the most influential treatises on witchcraft, codified the idea that witches formed an organized, clandestine network working to subvert Christian society. This idea fueled mass hysteria, leading to witch trials and inquisitions across Europe and colonial North America, where authorities used such accusations to suppress dissent and reinforce state and church control.^[8]

Yuval Noah Harari notes that this fear of hidden enemies parallels some modern deep-state conspiracy theories, particularly QAnon, which similarly portray a secret, malevolent network engaged in satanic rituals, child sacrifice, and efforts to corrupt society. Just as the Malleus Maleficarum claimed witches formed pacts with the Devil to abduct and sacrifice children, QAnon alleges that political elites participate in global child trafficking rings to harvest "adrenochrome", a real and easily-synthesised compound mythologised in popular culture into a sinister drug obtainable only from the glands of a living human body. According to Harari, both narratives rely on circular reasoning—where denial is seen as further proof of guilt—and justify extreme actions. Rooted in apocalyptic and dualistic thinking, these conspiracies frame political conflicts as battles between good and evil, reinforcing authority by channeling societal anxieties into moral panics that demand the purging of hidden enemies.^[8]

The German Enlightenment thinker Christoph Martin Wieland explored these concerns in his 1788 work The Secret of the Order of Cosmopolitans. Wieland speculated on how secret organizations, often claiming to work in the public interest, might instead become a state within a state, subverting legitimate political institutions. His work reflects broader Enlightenment-era concerns about the influence of clandestine societies on governance. While Wieland did not advocate conspiracy theories, he critically examined the tension between secret power structures and public accountability.^[9]

These fears intensified after the French Revolution (1789–1799), when some political factions accused secret societies of engineering political upheaval. Governments across Europe and North America responded with restrictive policies against fraternal organizations and underground political groups, reflecting anxieties about hidden forces shaping national affairs.^[10]

The 19th century marked a turning point in human history, as capitalism and global financial institutions reshaped political power. As Harari argues in Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind, capitalism thrives on the shared belief in financial systems, credit, and economic growth—a shift that allowed banks, corporations, and private capital to exert unprecedented influence over governments and society.^[11] This transformation led to widespread fears that financial elites had supplanted traditional political authority, embedding themselves as a permanent and unaccountable ruling class.^[12] Financial crisis like the Panic of 1873 reinforced fears that unelected financial elites dictated economic policy, prioritizing their own interests over national stability.^[12][13]

While earlier deep-state concerns mostly centered on secret societies like the Freemasons and Illuminati, new narratives falsely alleged that Jewish financiers and banking elites controlled global politics and economies. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fabricated document first circulated in the late 19th century, reinforced these claims by depicting a secret Jewish cabal manipulating world affairs.^[14] During the 1848 European Revolutions and the Paris Commune of 1871, reactionary groups accused Jewish bankers—particularly the Rothschild family—of using financial influence to destabilize governments and promote revolutionary change. These accusations paralleled broader fears that unelected elites exerted control beyond public accountability.^[15]

Economic power remains a core element of modern deep-state concerns. The Federal Reserve, IMF, and World Economic Forum (WEF) are frequently criticized for shaping global financial policies beyond democratic oversight.^[16][17]

The early 20th century was marked by political and social upheaval, fueling anxieties about hidden power structures manipulating government affairs. As states faced revolution, war, and economic crises, leaders increasingly warned of shadowy elites and internal conspiracies to justify crackdowns on political opposition and civil liberties. While concerns about entrenched influence within bureaucracies, militaries, and financial institutions were sometimes valid, governments often exploited these fears to consolidate power, suppress dissent, and expand authoritarian control under the guise of protecting democracy.^[18]

One of the most prominent deep state narratives emerged in response to the Russian Revolution of 1917. The sudden collapse of the Russian Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks' rise to power fueled speculation that the revolution was orchestrated by secretive forces rather than the result of social and economic tensions. Some anti-Bolshevik factions promoted the "Judeo-Bolshevik" conspiracy theory, which falsely claimed that Jewish revolutionaries had coordinated the uprising to subvert nations and manipulate governments for power and profit.^[19] This theory, though widely discredited, contributed to the broader perception that communist movements were part of an international deep state operating beyond public accountability.^[20]

The Nazi regime weaponized fears of hidden power structures to justify brutal crackdowns and eliminate rivals. The Night of the Long Knives (1934) was framed as a defense against internal conspirators, but it was a carefully orchestrated purge to solidify Nazi rule. Unlike the Weimar Republic's flawed but legally bound institutions, the Gestapo, SS, and SD operated without oversight, wielding state power to suppress dissent. By fabricating threats of shadowy elites and internal betrayal, the Nazis legitimized their own unaccountable rule, using the illusion of a deep state to create an openly repressive one.^[21]

Similar patterns emerged in Italy and Spain, where authoritarian leaders used deep state rhetoric to justify political crackdowns. Benito Mussolini's government portrayed liberal politicians, socialists, and anti-fascist activists as part of a clandestine force working against national unity. In Francoist Spain, Francisco Franco framed opposition groups as elements of an international conspiracy, using deep state allegations to centralize control and suppress dissent. While both regimes exaggerated the existence of an organized deep state, they also operated within bureaucratic environments where military, judicial, and aristocratic elites retained substantial influence over governance, even as political power formally shifted.^[22][23]

Historian Niall Ferguson notes that deep state narratives often emerge in times of crisis, offering simplified explanations for complex events.^[24] While sometimes rooted in real power struggles, governments have frequently cultivated these fears to justify repression, using deep state rhetoric to frame ideological subversion as a threat, silence dissent, and expand control—ultimately entrenching the very unaccountable power they claimed to expose.^[18]

Following World War II, the geopolitical restructuring significantly expanded global intelligence and security networks. The ensuing Cold War heightened fears of clandestine influence within governments, fueling perceptions of secretive power structures—conceptually analogous to the modern "deep state". Although the term frequently appears in United States contexts, similar anxieties independently emerged worldwide, including in Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, and Asia.

The Bretton Woods system, established in 1944, shaped global economic governance and fostered suspicion of hidden financial influence exerted by institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. This contributed to narratives of economic elites operating beyond democratic accountability and manipulating national sovereignty.^[25]

The postwar era witnessed unprecedented growth in intelligence apparatuses globally. Prominent examples included the Soviet Union's KGB, West Germany's Bundesnachrichtendienst (BND), and East Germany's Ministry for State Security (Stasi), each influential in internal surveillance and international espionage, deepening public suspicion regarding hidden bureaucratic influences.^[26] The KGB, in particular, wielded power beyond elected officials, militaries, and political organizations in Soviet satellite states, establishing itself as a dominant force that controlled governance through espionage, covert operations, and extensive surveillance, effectively superseding official political structures.^[27]

Cold War proxy conflicts reinforced the belief in covert foreign manipulation of national sovereignty. Events such as Indonesia's mass killings of 1965–1966, largely orchestrated by military forces supported by Western intelligence, and the Iran's 1953 coup, carried out by the CIA and British intelligence, reflected intensified fears of hidden international interference and subversion.^[28][29]

The emergence of the "military–industrial complex", first publicly articulated by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1961, highlighted the relationship between governments, militaries, and defense industries. This complex fostered concerns about unaccountable networks influencing government policy to perpetuate military spending, conflicts, and geopolitical tensions.^[30]

Authoritarian and puppet regimes worldwide, including Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser, Brazil during its military dictatorship, and Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe, institutionalized intelligence operations, fostering enduring suspicions of covert power structures and hidden governance within ostensibly independent states.^[31][32]

Journalists^[33] and academics^[34][35] specializing in Chinese politics and history have noted the parallels between the way Mao's government saw the deep state and the way the Trump administration saw the deep state. American Political scientist Francis Fukuyama has cited America's long-term competition with China as a reason defend the American deep state.^[36]

The concept of a deep state in Egypt is frequently associated with the powerful military and intelligence apparatus that has historically influenced the country's political landscape, since 1952. Following the 2011 Egyptian revolution and the rise of the Muslim Brotherhood, opposition figures accused elements within the military and bureaucracy of working to undermine the elected government. The 2013 military coup led by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi was seen by many as an example of the deep state's enduring power in Egypt, ensuring that military and intelligence agencies retained control over key aspects of governance.^[37]

In 2013, author Abdul-Azim Ahmed wrote the deep state was being used to refer to Egyptian military/security networks, headed by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces after the 2011 Egyptian revolution, basically remnants of the former regime who are combatting the democratic transition. They are "non-democratic leaders within a country" whose power is "independent of any political changes that take place". They are "often hidden beneath layers of bureaucracy" and may not be "in complete control at all times" but have "tangible control of key resources (whether human or financial)". He also wrote: "The 'deep state' is beginning to become short hand for the embedded anti-democratic power structures within a government, something very few democracies can claim to be free from."^[38]

The idea of a deep state in Germany has historical parallels in intellectual discourse. The Enlightenment writer Christoph Martin Wieland explored concerns about covert networks influencing political power in his 1788 work The Secret of the Order of Cosmopolitans. Wieland's writing, though fictionalized, anticipated fears that secret societies could establish a state within a state, operating beyond public accountability. His work offers an early literary reflection on the challenges of governance and transparency.^[39]

In the post-reunification era, the Reichsbürger movement of far-right extremists continue to reject the legitimacy of the Federal Republic of Germany and assert that the German Reich, which existed prior to 1945, continues to exist, and that this is the real legitimate government. Members of this movement refuse to pay taxes, issue their own identification documents, and often engage in pseudo-legal tactics to assert their views. In December 2022, German authorities foiled a coup plot orchestrated by a group influenced by the Reichsbürger movement and QAnon conspiracy theories. The conspirators aimed to overthrow the German government and install a new regime led by Heinrich XIII Prinz Reuss, a minor aristocrat. The plot involved recruiting former military personnel and stockpiling weapons, intending to use force to achieve their goals. The group had mapped out a new government structure and appointed individuals to cabinet-like roles in anticipation of their success. They sought to cooperate with Russia, though there is no evidence that Russia supported or responded positively to their overtures.^[40]

In Iran, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) is often considered a significant deep state entity due to its substantial economic, political, and military power. The IRGC operates with considerable autonomy from the elected government and has been involved in various covert operations and influence campaigns. This includes control over significant economic sectors, involvement in foreign military activities, and influence over domestic policy decisions. The IRGC's pervasive influence is seen as a central component of Iran's deep state, shaping both internal and external politics in alignment with its agenda.^{[41][42][43][44]}

In Israel, Prime MinisterBenjamin Netanyahu has raised conspiracy theories about a deep state seeking to undermine his government. In May 2020, an article in Haaretz describes how people meeting Netanyahu "have heard lengthy speeches [...] that even though he has been elected repeatedly, in reality, the country is controlled by a 'deep state.'"^[45] Netanyahu claimed that his trial on charges of corrupt relations with his friend Arnon Milchan was created by the 'Deep State', and that the fact that then-Finance Minister Yair Lapid was not indicted despite being a friend of Milchan also is proof of the existence of a deep state in Israel.^[46]

In India, National Advisory Council (NAC) has been described as a deep state entity. NAC was an advisory body set up by the first United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government in 2004 to advise the Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh. Sonia Gandhi served as its chairperson for much of the tenure of the UPA. Its aim was to assist the Prime Minister in achieving and monitoring missions and goals. It was dissolved in 2014.

The concept of a NAC has been criticized by opposition parties and some scholars as not being in keeping with India's constitution, describing it as an alternative cabinet. The NAC was also accused of exercising an outsized influence over the central government.^[47][48][49]

In Italy, the concept of a deep state is often linked to Il Sistema, referring to covert networks within the intelligence services, military, and even organized crime groups such as the Mafia. During the Cold War, Italy was a focal point of Operation Gladio, a clandestine NATO-backed effort to prevent communist influence. The existence of secretive paramilitary networks and their involvement in political manipulation and assassinations has fueled the idea of a deep state operating in Italy.Ganser, Daniele (2005). NATO's Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe. Routledge.

The most famous case is Propaganda Due.^[50] Propaganda Due (better known as P2) was a Masonic lodge belonging to the Grand Orient of Italy (GOI). It was founded in 1877 with the name of Masonic Propaganda,^[51] in the period of its management by the entrepreneur Licio Gelli it assumed deviated forms with respect to the statutes of the Freemasonry and became subversive towards the Italian legal order. The P2 was suspended by the GOI on 26 July 1976; subsequently, the parliamentary commission of inquiry into the P2 Masonic lodge under the presidency of Minister Tina Anselmi concluded the P2 case by denouncing the lodge as a real "criminal organization"^[52] and "subversive". It was dissolved with a special law, the n. 17 of 25 January 1982.

Journalist Robert F. Worth argues that the term deep state is "just as apt" for networks in many states in the Middle East where governments have colluded with smugglers and jihadis (Syria), jihadi veterans of the Soviet–Afghan War (Yemen), and other criminals working as irregular forces (Egypt and Algeria).^[53] In From Deep State to Islamic State, Jean-Pierre Filiu describes a hard core of regimes in Syria, Egypt, and Yemen that staged successful counter-revolutions against the Arab Spring in those countries, comparing them with the Mamluks of Egypt and the Levant from 1250 to 1517 in that they proclaim themselves servants of the putative rulers while actually ruling themselves.^[54]

In Pakistan, the term "deep state" is commonly used to describe the powerful role of the military and intelligence services, particularly the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), in shaping domestic and foreign policy. The Pakistani deep state has been accused of influencing elections, controlling media narratives, and supporting militant groups to maintain strategic interests in the region, particularly in relation to Afghanistan and India.Schofield, Victoria (2010). Pakistan: A Hard Country. Penguin. The concept has been a recurring theme in Pakistani politics, with civilian governments often facing challenges from entrenched security institutions.

Since independence, the Pakistan Armed Forces have always had a huge influence in the country's politics as a national security institutions.^[55] In addition to the decades of direct rule by the military government, the military also has many constraints on the power of the elected prime ministers, and also has been accused of being a deep state.^[56][57][58] The Pakistan Army is often referred to as "The Establishment" due to its deep involvement in the country's decision-making processes specifically the foreign affairs.^[59]

In Russia, the idea of a deep state aligns with the concept of the "siloviki" (силовики), a term referring to individuals from military, intelligence, and security backgrounds who exert influence over the government. The siloviki, often former members of the KGB and later the FSB, have been viewed as a key force in shaping Russian politics, particularly under the leadership of Vladimir Putin. Their role in decision-making, foreign policy, and economic affairs has led some analysts to describe Russia as having a deep state where security services and oligarchs play a crucial role in governance.Galeotti, Mark (2019). We Need to Talk About Putin: How the West Gets Him Wrong. Ebury Press.

According to the Journalist Robert F. Worth, "The expression 'deep state' had originated in Turkey in the 1990s, where the military colluded with drug traffickers and hit men to wage a dirty war against Kurdish insurgents".^[53] Professor Ryan Gingeras wrote that the Turkish term derin devlet "colloquially speaking" refers to "'criminal' or 'rogue' elements that have somehow muscled their way into power".^[60] The journalist Dexter Filkins wrote of a "presumed clandestine network" of Turkish "military officers and their civilian allies" who, for decades, "suppressed and sometimes murdered dissidents, Communists, reporters, Islamists, Christian missionaries, and members of minority groups—anyone thought to pose a threat to the secular order".^[61] Journalist Hugh Roberts has described the "shady nexus" between the police and intelligence services, "certain politicians and organised crime", whose members believe they are authorised "to get up to all sorts of unavowable things" because they are "custodians of the higher interests of the nation".^[54]

In the United Kingdom, the Civil Service has been called a deep state by senior politicians. In 2018, Steve Hilton, then advisor to David Cameron, claimed Tony Blair had said: "You cannot underestimate how much they believe it's their job to actually run the country and to resist the changes put forward by people they dismiss as 'here today, gone tomorrow' politicians. They genuinely see themselves as the true guardians of the national interest, and think that their job is simply to wear you down and wait you out."^[62] The British comedy series Yes Minister paints the conflict of the civil servant and the politician in charge in a humorous way.

In February 2024, former ConservativePrime MinisterLiz Truss claimed that she was forced out of office by the 'deep state' during an appearance at that year's Conservative Political Action Conference in the US. This statement was criticised within her own party and by the opposition, with both Labour Party Shadow Paymaster General Jonathan Ashworth and the Liberal Democrats Deputy Leader Daisy Cooper referring to it as a "conspiracy theory".^[63][64]

The concept's use in the United States of America dates back to at least 1963. The term has been used to describe "a hybrid association of government elements and parts of top-level industry and finance that is effectively able to govern the United States without reference to the consent of the governed as expressed through the formal political process."^[65] Events such as the Watergate scandal, COINTELPRO, and post-9/11 intelligence operations have been linked to discussions of the deep state.

In the United States, the term "deep state" gained popularity in the 21st century, particularly in political discourse. It is often used to suggest that unelected government officials, particularly within the intelligence community, law enforcement, and military, work to undermine elected leaders or shape policy in ways that contradict democratic governance. The term has been associated with conspiracy theories as well as with legitimate concerns about the influence of entrenched bureaucracies and intelligence agencies.^[66]

Intelligence agencies such as the CIA have been accused by elements of the Donald Trump administration of attempting to thwart its policy goals.^[67] Writing for The New York Times, the analyst Issandr El Amani warned against the "growing discord between a president and his bureaucratic rank-and-file", while analysts of the column The Interpreter wrote:^[67]

Though the deep state is sometimes discussed as a shadowy conspiracy, it helps to think of it instead as a political conflict between a nation's leader and its governing institutions.

According to the political commentator David Gergen, quoted by Time in early 2017, the term had been used by Steve Bannon, Breitbart News, and other supporters of the Trump administration in order to delegitimize critics of the Trump presidency.^[68] In February 2017, the deep state theory was dismissed by authors for The New York Times,^[67] as well as The New York Observer.^[69] In October 2019 The New York Times gave credence to the general idea by publishing an opinion piece arguing that the deep state in the Civil Service was created to "battle people like Trump".^[70] Trump's warnings about a deep state have been referred to as "repeating a longtime [John Birch Society] talking point".^[71]

Scholars have generally disputed the notion that the U.S. Executive Branch bureaucracy represents a true deep state as the term is formally understood but have taken a range of views on the role of that bureaucracy in constraining or empowering the U.S. president.^[72]

In March 2025, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu posted on his official X account "In America and in Israel, when a strong right wing leader wins an election, the leftist Deep State weaponized the justice system to thwart the peoples will. …" Elon Musk responded with a "100" emoji. Shortly afterwards, Netanyahu deleted the post from his official account and reposted on his personal account.^[73]

The Cartel of the Suns, a group of high-ranking officials within the Bolivarian government of Venezuela, has been described as "a series of often competing networks buried deep within the Chavista regime". Following the Bolivarian Revolution, the Bolivarian government initially embezzled until there were no more funds to embezzle, which required them to turn to drug trafficking. PresidentHugo Chávez made partnerships with the Colombian leftist militia Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and his successor Nicolás Maduro continued the process, promoting officials to high-ranking positions after they were accused of drug trafficking.^[75]

• Imperial Brazil's Diretório Monárquico do Brasil and Black Guard^[76]
• India's Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh^[77][78]
• Indonesia's Kopassus^[79][80][81]
• Kingdom of Serbia's Black Hand^[82]
• Morocco's Makhzen^[83][84]
• Pakistan's Intelligence Community: ISI, FIA, NAB, and/or IB^[85][86]
• Serbia and Montenegro's RDB^[87]
• Spain's Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación, "Antiterrorist Liberation Groups"^[88]
• Thailand's Military-Monarchy Nexus or Network Monarchy^[89]
• United Kingdom's City of London Corporation^[90]