Philosophical realism—usually not treated as a position of its own but as a stance towards other subject matters—is the view that a certain kind of thing (ranging widely from abstract objects like numbers to moral statements to the physical world itself) has mind-independent existence, i.e. that it exists even in the absence of any mind perceiving it or that its existence is not just a mere appearance in the eye of the beholder.[1][2][3][4] This includes a number of positions within epistemology and metaphysics which express that a given thing instead exists independently of knowledge, thought, or understanding.[5][6] This can apply to items such as the physical world, the past and future, other minds, and the self, though may also apply less directly to things such as universals, mathematical truths, moral truths, and thought itself. However, realism may also include various positions which instead reject metaphysical treatments of reality altogether.[7][8]
Realism can also be a view about the properties of reality in general, holding that reality exists independent of the mind, as opposed to non-realist views (like some forms of skepticism and solipsism) which question the certainty of anything beyond one's own mind. Philosophers who profess realism often claim that truth consists in a correspondence between cognitive representations and reality.[9]
Realists tend to believe that whatever we believe now is only an approximation of reality but that the accuracy and fullness of understanding can be improved.[10] In some contexts, realism is contrasted with idealism. Today it is more often contrasted with anti-realism, for example in the philosophy of science.[11][12]
「リアリズム」という用語の最も古い用例は、中世のスコラ哲学による古代ギリシア哲学の解釈や翻案に見られる。この立場は、多くの古代インド哲学にも見られた。[ 13 ]
この用語は後期ラテン語のrealis 「現実の」に由来し、抽象的な形而上学的な意味では、 1781年にイマヌエル・カントによって初めて使用されました(CPR A 369)。[ 14 ]
形而上学的実在論は、「存在するものはすべて、思考や経験によってその存在や性質が導かれるのとは無関係に、存在するものであり、その性質や関係性を持つ」と主張する。[ 15 ]言い換えれば、客観的な現実が存在する(単に一つまたは複数の主観的な現実が存在するわけではない)。
素朴実在論(直接実在論とも呼ばれる)は、感覚が私たちに外部世界を直接認識させてくれるという、常識的な知覚理論に基づいた心の哲学である。
直接的リアリズム
知覚的実在論は、テーブル、椅子、コーヒーカップは知覚者とは独立して存在するという常識的な見解です。直接的実在論者は、私たちが直接関わっているのはそのような対象物であると主張します。知覚の対象物には、ペーパークリップ、太陽、オリーブオイルの缶など、身近なものが含まれます。私たちが見たり、嗅いだり、触ったり、味わったり、聞いたりするのは、まさにこれらの物そのものです。しかし、直接的実在論には、素朴直接的実在論と科学的直接的実在論の2つのバージョンがあります。これらは、知覚されていないときに知覚対象物が持つと主張する特性が異なります。素朴実在論は、そのような対象物は、黄色さ、暖かさ、質量など、私たちが通常知覚するすべての特性を持ち続けると主張します。一方、科学的実在論は、対象物が持つと知覚される特性の一部は知覚者に依存しており、知覚されていない対象物はそれらの特性を保持していると考えるべきではないと主張します。このような立場には長い歴史があります。
慣習によって甘く、慣習によって苦く、慣習によって熱く、慣習によって冷たく、慣習によって色づけられる。現実には原子と空虚である。[デモクリトス、紀元前460-370年頃、セクストゥス・エンピリクスによる引用、バーンズ、1987年、252-253頁。] [ 16 ]
In contrast, some forms of idealism assert that no world exists apart from mind-dependent ideas and some forms of skepticism say we cannot trust our senses. The naive realist view is that objects have properties, such as texture, smell, taste and colour, that are usually perceived absolutely correctly. We perceive them as they really are.
Immanent realism is the ontological understanding which holds that universals are immanently real within particulars themselves, not in a separate realm, and not mere names. Most often associated with Aristotle and the Aristotelian tradition.
Scientific realism is, at the most general level, the view that the world described by science is the real world, as it is, independent of what we might take it to be. Within philosophy of science, it is often framed as an answer to the question "how is the success of science to be explained?" The debate over what the success of science involves centers primarily on the status of unobservable entities apparently talked about by scientific theories. Generally, those who are scientific realists assert that one can make reliable claims about unobservables (viz., that they have the same ontological status) as observables. Analytic philosophers generally have a commitment to scientific realism, in the sense of regarding the scientific method as a reliable guide to the nature of reality. The main alternative to scientific realism is instrumentalism.[17]
Realism in physics (especially quantum mechanics) is the claim that the world is in some sense mind-independent: that even if the results of a possible measurement do not pre-exist the act of measurement, that does not require that they are the creation of the observer (contrary to the "consciousness causes collapse" interpretation of quantum mechanics). That interpretation of quantum mechanics, on the other hand, states that the wave function is already the full description of reality. The different possible realities described by the wave function are equally true. The observer collapses the wave function into their own reality. One's reality can be mind-dependent under this interpretation of quantum mechanics.
Moral realism is the position that ethical sentences express propositions that refer to objective features of the world.
Aesthetic realism (not to be confused with Aesthetic Realism, the philosophy developed by Eli Siegel, or "realism" in the arts) is the view that there are mind-independent aesthetic facts.[18][19]

In ancient Greek philosophy, realist doctrines about universals were proposed by Plato and Aristotle.[20]
Platonic realism is a radical form of realism regarding the existence of abstract objects, including universals, which are often translated from Plato's works as "Forms". Since Plato frames Forms as ideas that are literally real (existing even outside of human minds), this stance is also called Platonic idealism. This should not be confused with "idealistic" in the ordinary sense of "optimistic" or with other types of philosophical idealism, as presented by philosophers such as George Berkeley. As Platonic abstractions are not spatial, temporal, or subjectively mental, they are arguably not compatible with the emphasis of Berkeley's idealism grounded in mental existence. Plato's Forms include numbers and geometrical figures, making his theory also include mathematical realism; they also include the Form of the Good, making it additionally include ethical realism.
In Aristotle's more modest view, the existence of universals (like "blueness") is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them (like a particular "blue bird", "blue piece of paper", "blue robe", etc.), and those particulars exist independent of any minds: classic metaphysical realism.
There were many ancient Indian realist schools, such as the Mimamsa, Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, Nyaya, Yoga, Samkhya, Sauntrantika, Jain, Vaisesika, and others. They argued for their realist positions, and heavily criticized idealism, like that of the Yogachara and Advaita Vedanta, and composed refutations of the Yogacara position.[21]
Medieval realism developed out of debates over the problem of universals.[22] Universals are terms or properties that can be applied to many things, such as "red", "beauty", "five", or "dog". Realism (also known as exaggerated realism) in this context, contrasted with conceptualism and nominalism, holds that such universals really exist, independently and somehow prior to the world. Moderate realism holds that they exist, but only insofar as they are instantiated in specific things; they do not exist separately from the specific thing. Conceptualism holds that they exist, but only in the mind, while nominalism holds that universals do not "exist" at all but are no more than words (flatus vocis) that describe specific objects.
Proponents of moderate realism included Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, and Duns Scotus (cf. Scotist realism).[23]
In early modern philosophy, Scottish Common Sense Realism was a school of philosophy which sought to defend naive realism against philosophical paradox and scepticism, arguing that matters of common sense are within the reach of common understanding and that common-sense beliefs even govern the lives and thoughts of those who hold non-commonsensical beliefs. It originated in the ideas of the most prominent members of the Scottish School of Common Sense, Thomas Reid, Adam Ferguson and Dugald Stewart, during the 18th century Scottish Enlightenment and flourished in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Scotland and America.
スコットランドの常識的実在論のルーツは、ジョン・ロック、ジョージ・バークリー、デイヴィッド・ヒュームといった哲学者たちへの反論に見出すことができる。このアプローチは、デカルトの感覚経験の限界の概念から始まり、ロックとヒュームを懐疑主義へと導き、宗教と感覚の証拠を等しく疑問視した「理想体系」への反論であった。常識的実在論者たちは、懐疑主義は不条理であり、日常経験に反するため、拒否せざるを得ないと考えていた。彼らは、日常経験は、自己の存在、見たり感じたりできる実在の対象、健全な道徳や宗教的信念を確立できる特定の「第一原理」の存在を直感的に確信させてくれると教えた。その基本原理は、創始者であり最も偉大な人物であるトーマス・リードによって明言された。[ 24 ]
近代後期の哲学において、形而上学的実在論を提唱した著名な学派の一つに、オーストリア学派の実在論がある。そのメンバーには、フランツ・ブレンターノ[ 25 ] 、アレクシウス・マイノング[ 25 ] 、ヴィットリオ・ベヌッシ[ 25 ] 、エルンスト・マリー[ 26 ]、そして初期のエドムント・フッサール[ 25 ]などが含まれる。これらの思想家は、真理の客観性と、真理を判断する者の性質からの独立性を強調した[ 27 ] (グラーツ学派も参照)。
弁証法的唯物論は、近代後期の哲学者カール・マルクスとフリードリヒ・エンゲルスの著作に基づく自然哲学であり、存在論的実在論の一形態として解釈されている。[ 28 ]
マイケル・レスニックによれば、ゴットロープ・フレーゲの1891年以降の作品は、リアリズムへの貢献として解釈できる。[ 29 ]
In contemporaryanalytic philosophy, Bertrand Russell,[30]Ludwig Wittgenstein,[31]J. L. Austin,[32]Karl Popper,[33][34] and Gustav Bergmann[35] espoused metaphysical realism. Hilary Putnam initially espoused metaphysical realism,[36] but he later embraced a form of anti-realism that he termed "internal realism."[37]Conceptualist realism (a view put forward by David Wiggins) is a form of realism, according to which our conceptual framework maps reality.[38]
Speculative realism is a movement in contemporary continental-inspired philosophy[39] that defines itself loosely in its stance of metaphysical realism against the dominant forms of post-Kantian philosophy.[40]