Mach, Robert; Schweitzer, Frank (2003). 「生物学的群集のマルチエージェントモデル」. Advances In Artificial Life . Lecture Notes in Computer Science . Vol. 2801. pp. 810–820 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.87.8022 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-39432-7_87 . ISBN978-3-540-20057-4。
Moths may exhibit synchronized mating, during which pheromones released by females initiate searching and swarming behavior in males.[82] Males sense pheromones with sensitive antennae and may track females as far as several kilometers away.[83] Swarm mating involves female choice and male competition. Only one male in the swarm—typically the first—will successfully copulate.[84] Females maximize fitness benefits and minimize cost by governing the onset and magnitude of pheromone deployed. Too little pheromone will not attract a mate, too much allows less fit males to sense the signal.[85] After copulation, females lay the eggs on a host plant. Quality of host plant may be a factor influencing the location of swarming and egg-laying. In one case, researchers observed pink-striped oakworm moths (Anisota virginiensis) swarming at a carrion site, where decomposition likely increased soil nutrient levels and host plant quality.[86]
Flies
Midges, such as Tokunagayusurika akamusi, form swarms, dancing in the air. Swarming serves multiple purposes, including the facilitation of mating by attracting females to approach the swarm, a phenomenon known as lek mating. Such cloud-like swarms often form in early evening when the sun is getting low, at the tip of a bush, on a hilltop, over a pool of water, or even sometimes above a person. The forming of such swarms is not out of instinct, but an adaptive behavior – a "consensus" – between the individuals within the swarms. It is also suggested that swarming is a ritual, because there is rarely any male midge by itself and not in a swarm. This could have formed due to the benefit of lowering inbreeding by having males of various genes gathering in one spot.[87] The genus Culicoides, also known as biting midges, have displayed swarming behavior which are believed to cause confusion in predators.[88]
Cockroaches
Cockroaches leave chemical trails in their feces as well as emitting airborne pheromones for mating. Other cockroaches will follow these trails to discover sources of food and water, and also discover where other cockroaches are hiding. Thus, groups of cockroaches can exhibit emergent behaviour,[89] in which group or swarm behaviour emerges from a simple set of individual interactions.
Scientists have attributed swarm behavior to plants for hundreds of years. In his 1800 book, Phytologia: or, The philosophy of agriculture and gardening, Erasmus Darwin wrote that plant growth resembled swarms observed elsewhere in nature.[131] While he was referring to more broad observations of plant morphology, and was focused on both root and shoot behavior, recent research has supported this claim.
Plant roots, in particular, display observable swarm behavior, growing in patterns that exceed the statistical threshold for random probability, and indicate the presence of communication between individual root apexes. The primary function of plant roots is the uptake of soil nutrients, and it is this purpose which drives swarm behavior. Plants growing in close proximity have adapted their growth to assure optimal nutrient availability. This is accomplished by growing in a direction that optimizes the distance between nearby roots, thereby increasing their chance of exploiting untapped nutrient reserves. The action of this behavior takes two forms: maximization of distance from, and repulsion by, neighboring root apexes.[132] The transition zone of a root tip is largely responsible for monitoring for the presence of soil-borne hormones, signaling responsive growth patterns as appropriate. Plant responses are often complex, integrating multiple inputs to inform an autonomous response. Additional inputs that inform swarm growth includes light and gravity, both of which are also monitored in the transition zone of a root's apex.[133] These forces act to inform any number of growing "main" roots, which exhibit their own independent releases of inhibitory chemicals to establish appropriate spacing, thereby contributing to a swarm behavior pattern. Horizontal growth of roots, whether in response to high mineral content in soil or due to stolon growth, produces branched growth that establish to also form their own, independent root swarms.[134]
Bacteria
Swarming also describes groupings of some kinds of predatory bacteria such as myxobacteria. Myxobacteria swarm together in "wolf packs", actively moving using a process known as bacterial gliding and keeping together with the help of intercellular molecular signals.[61][135]
Piranha have a reputation as fearless fish that swarm in ferocious and predatory packs. However, recent research, which started "with the premise that they school as a means of cooperative hunting", discovered that they were in fact rather fearful fish, like other fish, who schooled for protection from their predators, such as cormorants, caimans and dolphins. A researcher described them as "basically like regular fish with large teeth".[171]
↑Bouffanais, Roland (2016). Design and Control of Swarm Dynamics. SpringerBriefs in Complexity (Firsted.). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-981-287-751-2. ISBN978-981-287-750-5.
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