Some of the reports of NF-κB in neurons appear to have been an artifact of antibody nonspecificity.[64] Of course, artifacts of cell culture—e.g., removal of neurons from the influence of glia—could create spurious results as well. But this has been addressed in at least two co-culture approaches. Moerman et al.[65] used a coculture format whereby neurons and glia could be separated after treatment for EMSA analysis, and they found that the NF-κB induced by glutamatergic stimuli was restricted to glia (and, intriguingly, only glia that had been in the presence of neurons for 48hours). The same investigators explored the issue in another approach, utilizing neurons from an NF-κB reporter transgenic mouse cultured with wild-type glia; glutamatergic stimuli again failed to activate in neurons.[66] Some of the DNA-binding activity noted under certain conditions (particularly that reported as constitutive) appears to result from Sp3 and Sp4 binding to a subset of κB enhancer sequences in neurons.[67] This activity is actually inhibited by glutamate and other conditions that elevate intraneuronal calcium. In the final analysis, the role of NF-κB in neurons remains opaque due to the difficulty of measuring transcription in cells that are simultaneously identified for type. Certainly, learning and memory could be influenced by transcriptional changes in astrocytes and other glial elements. And it should be considered that there could be mechanistic effects of NF-κB aside from direct transactivation of genes.
Clinical significance
Overview of signal transduction pathways involved in apoptosis.
Cancers
NF-κB is widely used by eukaryotic cells as a regulator of genes that control cell proliferation and cell survival. As such, many different types of human tumors have misregulated NF-κB: that is, NF-κB is constitutively active. Active NF-κB turns on the expression of genes that keep the cell proliferating and protect the cell from conditions that would otherwise cause it to die via apoptosis. In cancer, proteins that control NF-κB signaling are mutated or aberrantly expressed, leading to defective coordination between the malignant cell and the rest of the organism. This is evident both in metastasis, as well as in the inefficient eradication of the tumor by the immune system.[68]
Normal cells can die when removed from the tissue they belong to, or when their genome cannot operate in harmony with tissue function: these events depend on feedback regulation of NF-κB, and fail in cancer.[69]
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