Social isolation is a state of complete or near-complete lack of contact between an individual and society. It differs from loneliness, which reflects temporary and involuntary lack of contact with other humans in the world.[1] Social isolation can be an issue for individuals of any age, though symptoms may differ by age group.[2]
Social isolation has similar characteristics in both temporary instances and for those with a historical lifelong isolation cycle. All types of social isolation can include staying home for lengthy periods of time; having no communication with family, acquaintances or friends; and/or willfully avoiding any contact with other humans when those opportunities do arise.
Effects
True social isolation over years and decades can be a chronic condition affecting all aspects of a person's well-being. Social isolation can often lead to feelings of loneliness, fear of others (agoraphobia), or negative self-esteem. Lack of consistent human contact can also cause conflict with (peripheral) friends. Socially isolated people may occasionally also cause problems with family members.
The magnitude of risk associated with social isolation is comparable with that of cigarette smoking and other major biomedical and psychosocial risk factors. However, our understanding of how and why social isolation is risky for health – or conversely – how and why social ties and relationships are protective of health, still remains quite limited.
In the case of mood-related isolation, the individual may isolate during a depressive episode only to 'surface' when their mood improves. The individual may attempt to justify their reclusive or isolating behavior as enjoyable or comfortable. There can be an inner realization on the part of the individual that there is something wrong with their isolating responses which can lead to heightened anxiety.[2] Relationships can be a struggle, as the individual may reconnect with others during a healthier mood only to return to an isolated state during a subsequent low or depressed mood.
Perceived social isolation in humans
Research indicates that perceived social isolation (PSI) is a risk factor for and may contribute to "poorer overall cognitive performance and poorer executive functioning, faster cognitive decline, more negative and depressive cognition, heightened sensitivity to social threats, and a self-protective confirmatory bias in social cognition."[4] PSI also contributes to accelerating the ageing process: Wilson et al. (2007) reported that, after controlling for social network size and frequency of social activity, perceived social isolation is predictive of cognitive decline and risk for Alzheimer's disease.[5] Moreover, the social interactions of individuals who feel socially isolated are often more negative and less subjectively satisfying.[6] This can contribute to a vicious cycle in which the person becomes more and more isolated.
Neuroimaging studies
In the first resting state fMRI functional connectivity (FC) study on PSI,[7] PSI was found to be associated with increased resting-state FC between several nodes of the cingulo-opercular network, a neural network associated with tonic alertness. PSI was also associated with reduced resting-state FC between the cingulo-opercular network and the right superior frontal gyrus, suggesting diminished executive control. Cacioppo and colleagues (2009)[4] found that lonely individuals express weaker activation of the ventral striatum in response to pleasant pictures of people than of objects, suggesting decreased reward to social stimuli. Lonely individuals also expressed greater activation of the visual cortex in response to unpleasant depictions of people (i.e., negative facial expressions) than of objects; non-lonely individuals showed greater activation of the right and left temporoparietal junction (TPJ), a region implicated in theory of mind. The authors interpreted the findings to represent that lonely individuals pay greater attention to negative social stimuli, but non-lonely individuals, to a greater degree than lonely individuals, insert themselves into the perspective of others. Moreover, Kanai et al. (2012) reported that loneliness negatively correlated with gray matter density in the left posterior temporal sulcus, an area involved in biological motion perception, mentalizing, and social perception.[8]
Overall, several neuroimaging studies in humans on perceived social isolation have emphasized implications of the visual cortex and right-hemispheric stress-related circuits underlying difference between lonely and non-lonely individuals. A 2020 population-genetics study marked a 50× increase in the neuroimaging research on perceived social isolation. The investigators tested for signatures of loneliness in grey matter morphology, intrinsic functional coupling, and fiber tract microstructure. The loneliness-linked neurobiological profiles converged on a collection of brain regions known as the default mode network. This higher associative network shows more consistent loneliness associations in grey matter volume than other cortical brain networks. Lonely individuals display stronger functional communication in the default network, and greater microstructural integrity of its fornix pathway. The findings fit with the possibility that the up-regulation of these neural circuits supports mentalizing, reminiscence and imagination to fill the social void.[9]
Social isolation in rodents
Experimental manipulations of social isolation in rats and mice (e.g., isolated rearing) are a common means of elucidating the effects of isolation on social animals in general. Researchers have proposed isolated rearing of rats as an etiologically valid model of human mental illness.[10] Indeed, chronic social isolation in rats has been found to lead to depression-, anxiety-, and psychosis-like behaviors as well as signs of autonomic, neuroendocrine, and metabolic dysregulation.[11][12][13] For example, a systematic review found that social isolation in rats is associated with increased expression of BDNF in the hippocampus, which is associated with increased anxiety-like symptoms. In another example, a study found that social isolation in rats is associated with increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the prefrontal cortex. This results in the dysregulation of neural activity which is associated with anxiety, depression, and social dysfunction.[14]
The effects of experimental manipulations of isolation in nonhuman social species have been shown to resemble the effects of perceived isolation in humans, and include: increased tonic sympathetic tone and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activation and decreased inflammatory control, immunity, sleep salubrity, and expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid responses.[15] However, the biological, neurological, and genetic mechanisms underlying these symptoms are poorly understood.
Neurobiology
Social isolation contributes to abnormal hippocampal development via specific alterations to microtubule stability and decreased MAP-2 expression.[16] Social isolation contributes to decreased expression of the synaptic protein synaptophysin[17] and decreased dendritic length and dendritic spine density of pyramidal cells.[18] The underlying molecular mechanism of these structural neuronal alterations is microtubule stabilization, which impairs the remodeling and extension of axons[19] and dendrites.[20]
Research by Cole and colleagues showed that perceived social isolation is associated with gene expression– specifically, the under-expression of genes bearing anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid response elements and over-expression of genes bearing response elements for pro-inflammatory NF-κB/Reltranscription factors.[21] This finding is paralleled by decreased lymphocyte sensitivity to physiological regulation by the HPA axis in lonely individuals. This, together with evidence of increased activity of the HPA axis, suggests the development of glucocorticoid resistance in chronically lonely individuals.[22]
Social isolation can be a precipitating factor for suicidal behavior. A large body of literature suggests that individuals who experience isolation in their lives are more vulnerable to suicide than those who have strong social ties with others.[23] A study found social isolation to be among the most common risk factors identified by Australian men who attempt suicide. Professor Ian Hickie of the University of Sydney said that social isolation was perhaps the most important factor contributing to male suicide attempts. Hickie said there was a wealth of evidence that men had more restricted social networks than women, and that these networks were heavily work-based.[24]
A lack of social relationships negatively impacts the development of the brain's structure. In extreme cases of social isolation, studies of young mice and monkeys have shown how the brain is strongly affected by a lack of social behaviour and relationships.[25][26]
In a hypothesis proposed by Cacioppo and colleagues, the isolation of a member of a social species has detrimental biological effects. In a 2009 review, Cacioppo and Hawkley noted that the health, life, and genetic legacy of members of social species are threatened when they find themselves on the social perimeter.[4] For instance, social isolation decreases lifespan in the fruit fly; promotes obesity and type 2 diabetes in mice;[28] exacerbates infarct size and oedema and decreases post-stroke survival rate following experimentally induced stroke in mice; promotes activation of the sympatho-adrenomedullary response to an acute immobilisation or cold stressor in rats; delays the effects of exercise on adult neurogenesis in rats; decreases open field activity, increases basal cortisol concentrations, and decreases lymphocyte proliferation to mitogens in pigs; increases the 24-hour urinary catecholamine levels and evidence of oxidative stress in the aortic arch of rabbits; and decreases the expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid response in the frontal cortex.
Social isolation in the common starling, a highly social, flocking species of bird, has also been shown to stress the isolated birds.[29]
Background
Social isolation can be both a potential cause and a symptom of emotional or psychological challenges. As a cause, the perceived inability to interact with the world and others can create an escalating pattern of these challenges. As a symptom, periods of isolation can be chronic or episodic, depending upon any cyclical changes in mood, especially in the case of clinical depression.
Everyday aspects of this type of deep-rooted social isolation can mean:
staying home for an indefinite period of time due to lack of access to social situations rather than a desire to be alone;
both not contacting, and not being contacted by, any acquaintances, even peripherally; for example, never being called by anybody on the telephone and never having anyone visit one's residence;
a lack of meaningful, extended relationships, and especially close intimacy (both emotional and physical).[30][31]
Contributing factors
Research suggests that the COVID pandemic increased social isolation, especially for those who lived alone and worked in jobs that could be performed remotely.[32] Their isolation levels did not return to pre-pandemic levels.[32]社会的に孤立した一人暮らしの人の割合は家族と同居している人の割合よりも多いが(別のグラフを参照)、このグラフはパンデミックに関連した社会的孤立の増加が家族と同居している人にも見られたことを示しています。[ 32 ]
Whether new technologies such as the Internet and mobile phones exacerbate social isolation (of any origin) is a frequently debated topic among sociologists, with studies showing both positive correlation of social connections with use of social media[57] as well as mood disorders coinciding with problematic use.[58]
Isolation among the elderly
Social isolation impacts approximately 24% of older adults in the United States, approximately 9million people.[59] The elderly have a unique set of isolating dynamics that often perpetuate one another and can drive the individual into deeper isolation.[1][60] Increasing frailty, possible declines in overall health, absent or uninvolved relatives or children, economic struggles can all add to the feeling of isolation.[61] Among the elderly, childlessness can be a cause for social isolation. Whether their child is deceased or they did not have children at all, the loneliness that comes from not having a child can cause social isolation.[62][63] Retirement, the abrupt end of daily work relationships, the death of close friends or spouses can also contribute to social isolation.[64]
Social isolation and loneliness in older adults is associated with an increased risk for poor mental and physical health and increased mortality.[72][73] There is an increased risk for early mortality in individuals experiencing social isolation compared to those who are not socially isolated.[74] Studies have found social isolation is associated with increased risk in physical health conditions including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, elevated stress hormones, and weakened immune systems.[75] Research also suggests that social isolation and mortality in the elderly share a common link to chronic inflammation with some differences between men and women.[76] Social isolation has also been found to be associated with poor mental health including increased risk for depression, cognitive decline, anxiety, and substance use.[72] Social isolation in elderly individuals is also associated with an increased risk for dementia.[74] However, not all studies found social isolation associated with the risk of poor health outcome.[77]
Isolation among children and teens
Middle school is a time when youth tend to be sensitive to social challenges and their self-esteem can be fragile. During this vulnerable time in development, supporting students' sense of belonging at school is of critical importance. Existing research[78] finds that adolescents' development of a sense of belonging is an important factor in adolescence for creating social and emotional well-being and academic success. Studies have found that friendship-related loneliness is more explanatory for depressive symptoms among adolescents than parent-related loneliness. One possible explanation is that friends are the preferred source of social support during adolescence.[79][80]
Scientists have long known that loneliness in adults can predispose depressive symptoms later in life. Scientists have also seen that lonely children are more susceptible to depressive symptoms in youth. In one study, researchers conclude that prevention of loneliness in childhood may be a protective factor against depression in adulthood.[81][80] Socially isolated children tend to have lower subsequent educational attainment, be part of a less advantaged social class in adulthood, and are more likely to be psychologically distressed in adulthood.[82][26] By receiving social assistance, studies show that children can cope more easily with high levels of stress. It is also shown that social support is strongly associated with feelings of mastery and the ability to deal with stressful situations, as well as strongly associated with increased quality of life.[83][26]
Demographics
Research has shown that men and boys are more likely to experience social isolation in their lives.[84]
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↑Qualter P, Brown SL, Munn P, Rotenberg KJ (June 2010). "Childhood loneliness as a predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms: an 8-year longitudinal study"(PDF). European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 19 (6): 493–501. doi:10.1007/s00787-009-0059-y. PMID19777287. S2CID15957889.
↑Lacey RE, Kumari M, Bartley M (December 2014). "Social isolation in childhood and adult inflammation: evidence from the National Child Development Study". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 50: 85–94. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.007. PMID25197797. S2CID18154995.
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Further reading
"What is Social Isolation?". Beyond Differences.
Elkin F (1960). The Child and Society: The Process of Socialization. New York: Random House.
Keller M (February 2019). "Isolation". In Sturman J (ed.). The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture. Vol.III. SAGE Publications. pp.1204–1206.
House JS (2001). "Social isolation kills, but how and why?". Psychosomatic Medicine. 63 (2): 273–4. doi:10.1097/00006842-200103000-00011. PMID11292275.
Iliardi S. "Social Isolation: A Modern Plague". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
Khullar D (2016-12-22). "How Social Isolation Is Killing Us". The New York Times.
London R, Ingram D (2015). "The Health Consequences of Social Isolation: It hurts more than you think, Literature Review for Beyond Differences: Negative Correlates of Social Isolation"(PDF). Beyond Differences. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-10-20.
Sayburn A (2010). "Social isolation-the unrecognized killer". Consumer News. Archived from the original on 2012-04-23. Retrieved 2012-03-19.
Small, Mario L.; Brant, Kristina; Fekete, Maleah (2024). "The Avoidance of Strong Ties". American Sociological Review.
Svensson C (2005). "Social Isolation: The need to turn to one another"(PDF). Archived from the original on 2015-06-04.
Wharton B (2012). "How Social Isolation Kills". Dissident Voice. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
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