音声（文法）

古代ギリシア語の文法では、態はδιάθεσις diáthesis「配置」または「条件」と呼ばれ、3 つの下位分類がありました。

• アクティブ ( ἐνέργειαエネルギー)
• 受動的 ( πάθοςパトス)
• 中央 ( μεσότης mesótēs )。^{[ 5 ] [ 6 ]}

ラテン語では、2つの声が認識されました。

• 活性（activum）
• 受動態（受動態）

一般的に、標準中国語（北京語と広東語の両方を含む）の文法は、他の中国語の方言と多くの共通点を持っています。しかし、方言によっていくつかの違いも存在します。

日本語の文法的な態は能動態と受動態のみで構成され、中間態は存在しない。

Santali and all Munda languages of the Austroasiatic phylum in general are notoriously messy for their fusion of TAMs and verb stems with the active and middle voices. In the perfective series of Santali, the active suffixes distinguish themselves from the middle suffixes with a final checked consonant ˀt that is conditioned to several morphophonological changes. The active agent of a polyvalent predicate can be passivized by using several stem augments such as -uʔ~oʔ in stem alternations or to mark its predicate as middle voice in the imperfective series.

Verbs in the Finnic languages, such as Finnish and Estonian, have an impersonal voice, often simply called the passive (Finnish: passiivi, Estonian: umbisikuline tegumood), which omits the subject and retains the grammatical role of the object. It has also been called the "zero person".^[33] In Estonian:

Naised loevad ajalehte.'Women read the newspaper.'

Ajalehte loetakse.'The newspaper is (being) read.'

In Estonian, the agent can be included by using the postpositionpoolt, although using such a construction instead of the active voice is criticized as a foreignism (influenced by German, Russian and English) and characteristic of officialese.^[34]

Ajalehte loetakse naiste poolt.'The newspaper is read by women.'

In both Finnish and Estonian, the use of the impersonal voice generally implies that the agent is capable of own initiative . For example, Finnish Ikkuna hajotettiin. ("The window was broken.") would generally not be used if the window was broken by the wind, rather than a person. In the latter case, one could instead use a reflexive (anticausative) verb in the active voice, such as Ikkuna hajosi. ("The window broke.").

Celtic languages have an inflection commonly called the "impersonal" or "autonomous" form,^[35] of similar origin to the Latin "passive-impersonal". This is similar to a passive construction in that the agent of the verb is not specified. However its syntax is different from prototypical passives, in that the object of the action remains in the accusative.^[36]

It is similar to the use of the pronoun on in French (except wherever on is instead used an alternative to "we", which is very frequent). It increasingly corresponds to the passive in modern English, in which there is a trend towards avoiding the use of the passive unless it is specifically required to omit the subject. It also appears to be similar to the "fourth person" mentioned in the preceding paragraph. However, what is called in Irish an briathar saor or the free verb does not suggest passivity but a kind of generalized agency.

The construction has equal validity in transitive and intransitive clauses, and the best translation into English is normally by using the "dummy" subjects "they", "one", or impersonal "you". For example, the common sign against tobacco consumption has its closest direct translation in English as "No smoking":

An example of its use as an intransitive is:

The difference between the autonomous and a true passive is that while the autonomous focuses on the action and overtly avoids mentioning the actor, there is nonetheless an anonymous agent who may be referred to in the sentence. For instance:^[37]

In English, the formation of the passive allows the optional inclusion of an agent in a prepositional phrase, "by the man", etc. Where English would leave out the noun phrase, Irish uses the autonomous; where English includes the noun phrase, Irish uses its periphrastic passive – which can also leave out the noun phrase:

The impersonal endings have been re-analysed as a passive voice in Modern Welsh and the agent can be included after the preposition gan ('by'):

Darllenir y papur newydd.'The newspaper is read.'

Cenir y gân gan y côr.'The song is sung by the choir.'

• Static passive auxiliary verb: sein
• Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: werden

Der Rasen ist gemäht ("The lawn is mown", static)

Der Rasen wird gemäht ("The lawn is being mown", literally "The lawn becomes mown", dynamic)

• Static passive auxiliary verb: be (the "be-passive")
• Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: get (the "get-passive")

For some speakers of English the dynamic passive constructed with get is not accepted and is considered colloquial or sub-standard.

The grass is cut (static)

The grass gets cut or The grass is being cut (dynamic)

• Static passive auxiliary verb: vara (är, var, varit)
• Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: bli (blir, blev, blivit)

Dynamic passive in Swedish is also frequently expressed with the s-ending.

Dörren är öppnad. "The door has been opened."

Dörren blir öppnad. "The door is being opened."

The vara passive is often synonymous with, and sometimes preferable to, simply using the corresponding adjective:

Dörren är öppen. "The door is open."

The bli passive is often synonymous with, and sometimes preferable to, the s-passive:

Dörren öppnas. "The door is opening."

Spanish has two verbs corresponding to English to be: ser and estar. Ser is used to form the ordinary (dynamic) passive voice:

La puerta es abierta. "The door is [being] opened [by someone]"

La puerta es cerrada. "The door is [being] closed [by someone]"

However, this construction is very unidiomatic. The usual passive voice is the pasiva refleja (‘reflexive passive’ phrase), in which the verb is conjugated in the active voice, but preceded by the se particle:

La puerta se abre.

La puerta se cierra.

Estar is used to form what might be termed a static passive voice (not regarded as a passive voice in traditional Spanish grammar; it describes a state that is the result of an action):

La puerta está abierta. "The door is open.", i.e., it has been opened.

La puerta está cerrada. "The door is closed.", i.e., it has been closed.

In the ser and estar cases, the verb’s participle is used as the complement (as is sometimes the case in English).

Italian uses two verbs (essere and venire) to translate the static and the dynamic passive:

Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: essere and venire (to be and to come)

La porta è aperta. or La porta viene aperta. "The door is opened [by someone]" or "The door comes open [by someone]".

La porta è chiusa. or La porta viene chiusa. "The door is closed [by someone]" or "The door comes closed [by someone]".

Static passive auxiliary verb: essere (to be)

La porta è aperta. "The door is open," i.e., it has been opened.

La porta è chiusa. "The door is closed," i.e., it has been closed.

In Venetian (Vèneto) the difference between dynamic (true) passive and stative (adjectival) passive is more clear cut, using èser (to be) only for the static passives and vegner (to become, to come) only for the dynamic passive:

Ła porta ła vien verta. "The door is opened", dynamic

Ła porta ła xè / l'è verta. "The door is open", static

Static forms represents much more a property or general condition, whereas the dynamic form is a real passive action entailing "by someone":

èser proteto. "To be protected = to be in a safe condition", static

vegner proteto. "To be protected = to be defended (by so)", dynamic

èser considarà. "To be considered = to have a (good) reputation", static

vegner considarà. "To be taken into consideration (by people, by so)", dynamic

èser raprexentà (a l'ONU). "To be represented (at the UN) = to have a representation", static

vegner raprexentà a l'ONU (da un dełegà). "To be represented at the UN (by a delegate)", dynamic