Both saprotrophs and biotrophs were found in the Rhynie Chert, but there is little evidence to support either hypothesis.
There is some fossil evidence that suggests that the parasitic fungi did not kill the host cells immediately upon invasion, although a response to the invasion was observed in the host cells. This response may have evolved into the chemical signaling processes required for symbiosis.[12]
In both cases, the symbiotic plant-fungi interaction is thought to have evolved from a relationship in which the fungi was taking nutrients from the plant into a symbiotic relationship where the plant and fungi exchange nutrients.
The ancient plants did not have true roots. Strullu-Derrien and Strullu proposed the term 'Paramycorrhizae' for the mycorrhizae that infected the rhizome or shoot or thalli, and 'Eumycorrhizae' that infects true roots.[14][15][16] These structures were reported in both sporophytes and gametophytes of the early land plants.[15]
Molecular evidence
Increased interest in mycorrhizal symbiosis and the development of sophisticated molecular techniques has led to the rapid development of genetic evidence. Wang et al. (2010) investigated plant genes involved in communication with order Glomales fungal partners (DMI1, DMI3, IPD3).[17][18] These three genes could be sequenced from all major clades of modern land plants, including liverworts, the most basal group, and phylogeny of the three genes proved to agree with then current land plant phylogenies. This implies that mycorrhizal genes must have been present in the common ancestor of land plants, and that they must have been vertically inherited since plants colonized land.[17]
AM fungi and cyanobacteria symbiosis
It was revealed that AM fungi have the bacterial type core enzyme (ribonuclease III) of the sRNA processing mechanism, probably by the process of horizontal gene transfer from a cyanobacterial ancestor, and possibly related to symbiosis.[19] This finding of a genetic fossil inside AM fungi raises the possibility of an intimate relationship between AM fungi and cyanobacterial ancestors. A similar Geosiphon–Nostoc symbiosis was previously reported.[20]
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are most frequent in plants growing on mineral soils, and are of extreme importance for plants growing in nutrient-deficient substrates such as in volcanic soil and sand dune environments. The populations of AM fungi is greatest in plant communities with high diversity such as tropical rainforests and temperate grasslands where they have many potential host plants and can take advantage of their ability to colonize a broad host range.[45] There is a lower incidence of mycorrhizal colonization in very arid or nutrient-rich soils. Mycorrhizas have been observed in aquatic habitats; however, waterlogged soils have been shown to decrease colonization in some species.[45] Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are found in 80% of plant species[46] and have been surveyed on all continents except Antarctica.[47][48] The biogeography of glomeromycota is influenced by dispersal limitation,[49] environmental factors such as climate,[47]soil series and soil pH,[48] soil nutrients[50] and plant community.[47][51] While evidence from 2000 suggests that AM fungi are not specialists on their host species,[52] studies as of 2002 have indicated that at least some fungi taxa are host specialists.[53] The ecology of Mucoromycotinian fungi, which form "fine root endophyte" arbuscular mycorrhizas is largely unknown.
Response to plant communities
The specificity, host range, and degree of colonization of mycorrhizal fungi are difficult to analyze in the field due to the complexity of interactions between the fungi within a root and within the system. There is no clear evidence to suggest that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi exhibit specificity for colonization of potential AM host plant species as do fungal pathogens for their host plants.[45] This may be due to the opposite selective pressure involved.
The mycorrhizal status of invasive plant species often varies between regions. For example, in the United Kingdom and central Europe recently invasive plants are more frequently obligately mycorrhizal than expected,[54][65] while invasive plants in California were found to be less frequently mycorrhizal than expected.[66]
Interactions between AM fungi and other plant symbionts
All symbionts within a plant host interact, often in unpredictable ways. A 2010 meta-analysis indicated that plants colonized by both AM fungi and vertically transmitted endophytes often are larger than plants independently colonized by these symbionts.[67] However, this relationship is context-dependent as AM fungi can interact synergistically with fungal endophytes inhabiting the leaves of their host plant,[68][69] or antagonistically.[70][71][72] Similar ranges of interactions can occur between AM fungi and ectomycorrhizal fungi and dark septate endophytes.[73]
Response to environmental gradients
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi vary across many environmental gradients. Their tolerance to freezing and drying is known to shift between AM fungal taxa.[74] AM fungi become less prevalent and diverse at higher soil nutrient and moisture concentrations,[75] presumably because both plants allocate less carbon to AM fungi and AM fungi reallocate their resources to intraradical hyphae in these environmental conditions.[76] Over the long term, these environmental conditions can even create local adaptation between plant hosts, AM fungi and the local soil nutrient concentrations.[77] AM composition often becomes less diverse on mountain tops than at lower elevations, which is driven by the composition of plant species.[78]
AM fungi have been shown to improve plant tolerance to abiotic environmental factors such as salinity. They alleviate salt stress and benefit plant growth and productivity.[79]
Rhizosphere ecology
The rhizosphere is the soil zone in the immediate vicinity of a root system.
耕起は、根外菌糸ネットワークを破壊することにより、土壌の接種能力と菌根菌の有効性を低下させる(Miller et al. 1995、McGonigle & Miller 1999、Mozafar et al. 2000)。
土壌の巨視的構造を破壊することで、菌糸ネットワークは感染性を失わせる(Miller et al. 1995、McGonigle & Miller 1999)。菌糸ネットワークの破壊は、菌糸が覆う表面積が大幅に減少するため、菌根菌の吸収能力を低下させる。その結果、菌糸ネットワークに接続されている植物へのリンの供給量が減少する(図3、McGonigle & Miller 1999)。
耕起量を減らすシステムでは、重耕システムに比べて多量のリン酸肥料の投入は必要ないかもしれない。これは、菌根ネットワークが増加するため、菌根菌が植物に十分なリンを供給できるようになるためである(Miller et al. 1995)。
菌根被覆作物は、菌根接種源のポテンシャルと菌糸ネットワークを改善するために使用できる(Kabir and Koide 2000、Boswell et al. 1998、Sorensen et al. 2005)。
AM菌は生物栄養性であるため、菌糸ネットワークの成長には植物に依存しています。被覆作物を栽培することで、AM菌の成長期間を秋、冬、春まで延長できます。菌糸の成長が促進されることで、より広範囲な菌糸ネットワークが形成されます。被覆作物システムで見られる菌根菌の定着率の増加は、主に新しい作物の根に定着できる根外菌糸ネットワークの増加に起因すると考えられます(Boswell et al. 1998)。根外菌糸は冬を越すことができ、春の迅速な定着と生育初期の共生を可能にします(McGonigle and Miller 1999)。この初期の共生により、植物は十分に確立された菌糸ネットワークを利用して、生育初期に十分なリン栄養を供給され、作物の収量が大幅に向上します。
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↑ストルル・デリエン、クリスティーン。 Strullu、Désiré-Georges (2007 年 11 月)、「化石と生きている植物の菌根化La mycorrhization des plantes fossiles et actuelles」、Comptes Rendus Palevol、La paléobotanique et l'évolution du monde végétal : Quelques problèmes d'actualité、6 ( 6– 7): 483–494、土井: 10.1016/j.crpv.2007.09.006
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↑ジョバンニーニ、ルカ。パラ、ミケーラ。アニョルッチ、モニカ。アヴィオ、ルチアーノ。スブラナ、クリスティアナ。トゥリーニ、アレッサンドラ。ジョヴァネッティ、マヌエラ (2020)。「植物生体刺激剤としてのアーバスキュラー菌根菌と関連微生物叢: 最も優れた接種材料を選択するための研究戦略」。農学。10 : 106.土井: 10.3390/agronomy10010106。hdl : 11568/1022324。この記事には、 CC BY 4.0ライセンスの下で利用可能なこの出典からのテキストが含まれています。
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