Genetic testing, also known as DNA testing, is used to identify changes in DNA sequence or chromosome structure. Genetic testing can also include measuring the results of genetic changes, such as RNA analysis as an output of gene expression, or through biochemical analysis to measure specific protein output.[1] In a medical setting, genetic testing can be used to diagnose or rule out suspected genetic disorders, predict risks for specific conditions, or gain information that can be used to customize medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup.[1] Genetic testing can also be used to determine biological relatives, such as a child's biological parentage (genetic mother and father) through DNA paternity testing,[2] or be used to broadly predict an individual's ancestry.[3] Genetic testing of plants and animals can be used for similar reasons as in humans (e.g. to assess relatedness/ancestry or predict/diagnose genetic disorders),[4] to gain information used for selective breeding,[5] or for efforts to boost genetic diversity in endangered populations.[6]
Newborn screening– used just after birth to identify genetic disorders that can be treated early in life. A blood sample is collected with a heel prick from the newborn 24–48 hours after birth and sent to the lab for analysis. In the United States, newborn screening procedure varies state by state, but all states by law test for at least 21 disorders. If abnormal results are obtained, it does not necessarily mean the child has the disorder. Diagnostic tests must follow the initial screening to confirm the disease.[14] The routine testing of infants for certain disorders is the most widespread use of genetic testing—millions of babies are tested each year in the United States. All states currently test infants for phenylketonuria (PKU, a genetic disorder that causes intellectual disability if left untreated) and congenitalhypothyroidism (a disorder of the thyroid gland). People with PKU do not have an enzyme needed to process the amino acid phenylalanine, which is responsible for normal growth in children and normal protein use throughout their lifetime. If there is a buildup of too much phenylalanine, brain tissue can be damaged, causing developmental delay. Newborn screening can detect the presence of PKU, allowing children to be placed on special diets to avoid the effects of the disorder.[14]
Diagnostic testing– used to diagnose or rule out a specific genetic or chromosomal condition. In many cases, genetic testing is used to confirm a diagnosis when a particular condition is suspected based on clinical features and symptoms. Diagnostic testing can be performed at any time during a person's life but is not available for all genes or all genetic conditions. The results of a diagnostic test can influence a person's choices about health care and the management of the disease. For example, people with a family history of polycystic kidney disease (PKD) who experience pain or tenderness in their abdomen, blood in their urine, frequent urination, pain in the sides, a urinary tract infection or kidney stones may decide to have their genes tested, and the result could confirm the diagnosis of PKD.[15] Despite the several implications of genetic testing in conditions such as epilepsy or neurodevelopmental disorders, many patients (especially adults) do not have access to these modern diagnostic approaches, showing a relevant diagnostic gap.[16]
With regard to genetic testing and information in general, legislation in the United States called the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act prohibits group health plans and health insurers from denying coverage to a healthy person or charging that person higher premiums based solely on a genetic predisposition to developing a disease in the future. The legislation also bars employers from using genetic information when making hiring, firing, job placement, or promotion decisions.[56] Although GINA protects against genetic discrimination, Section 210 of the law states that once the disease has manifested, employers can use the medical information and not be in violation of the law, even if the condition has a genetic basis.[57] The legislation, the first of its kind in the United States,[58] was passed by the United States Senate on April 24, 2008, on a vote of 95–0, and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on May 21, 2008.[59][60] It went into effect on November 21, 2009.
In June 2013 the US Supreme Court issued two rulings on human genetics. The Court struck down patents on human genes, opening up competition in the field of genetic testing.[61] The Supreme Court also ruled that police were allowed to collect DNA from people arrested for serious offenses.[62]
In the European Union
Effective as of May 25, 2018, companies that process genetic data must abide by the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).[63][64] The GDPR is a set of rules/regulations that helps an individual take control of their data that is collected, used, and stored digitally or in a structured filing system on paper, and restricts a company's use of personal data.[64] The regulation also applies to companies that offer products/services outside the EU.[64]
In Germany
Genetic testing in Germany is governed by the Genetic Diagnostics Act (GenDG),[65] which mandates that health-related genetic tests can only be carried out under medical supervision to ensure the proper interpretation of results and informed decision-making. The law emphasizes genetic counseling and informed consent, protecting individuals from potential misuse or misunderstanding of their genetic data.
Genetic testing influences how we perceive identity, ancestry, and group membership. Genealogical DNA testing has been critiqued for its potential to affirm and normalise biological race science. Genetic ancestry tests—which use biological data to predict a person's genetic similarity to a variety of social groups—reify biological race by seemingly providing concrete biological explanations for racial group variety. Marketing for ancestry tests often supports this misconception that humans can be separated into biologically distinct groups.[75]
However, genetic ancestry testing also has the potential to complicate these same notions. Subjectivities, based on identification with a particular race, can be challenged when genetic testing reveals ancestry from another group. For instance, someone who identifies as white may have their subjective experiences challenged upon discovering shared ancestry with a marginalised group. This can force them to examine ideas of what it means for them to continue identifying as white.[75]
Genetic ancestry tests impact on a person's subjective identification with race can even be mediated by their prior identifications. White consumers of these tests are more likely to identify with newly discovered ancestral backgrounds, due to viewing whiteness as boring or plain as opposed to the perceived exoticism of other identities.[76]
In Vitro Fertilisation
Ethical implications surrounding genetic testing also arise with the use of In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF). Genetic testing is used in IVF to test embryos for potentially fatal diseases to determine the strongest candidates.[77] With this they are also able to see the sex of these embryos, meaning people who undergo IVF are able to choose the sex of their future child.
This gender selection of embryos is not aimed at assessing the viability of said embryo, rather a cultural act that has deep roots in most societies around the world.[77] This practice perpetuates the historical gender power dynamics reflecting how gender and sex are central to kinship, inheritance, and cultural ideals of families.[78] In patriarchal societies gender selection is used to facilitate son preference and the devaluing of daughters, reinforcing the existing hierarchies present in current society under the guise of choice.[79]
This practice is justified under the context of reproductive autonomy, it is clear that these so-called choices are culturally informed and shaped by society.[80] This reinforces the stereotypes of each gender's roles within a family unit. It is argued that technologies, such as these, sort embryos for socially desirable traits and removes the natural randomness of sex determination with targeted intervention.[81]
Paternity testing
While paternity testing has proven an important genetic test within the medical field, its place in shaping human experience cannot be overlooked. Paternity testing can provide answers to the fundamental individual need to know where one came from. However, the development of the technology has somewhat ridiculed the origins of 'father' being a provider of care, support, and inspiration regardless of bloodline.[82]
Paternity is not always defined by biology, 'father' or 'fathers' can be defined by their role as a provider of care and support to the offspring in contemporary society. With the increasing availability of tests, and the shifting recognition and meaning of paternity within the law, rates of paternity tests are increasing.[83] Shifting legal practices, which are emphasising 'reproductive history' to declare paternity, to place more responsibility and rights upon the biological father.[84] This discourse places the question of 'who is the father?' above the more significant question 'what is the father?'.
The consideration of responsibilities that define fatherhood as 'lesser' is counterproductive to creating strong familial bonds, nor does it allow individuals to gain a deep sense of self through family. With the increasing demand for paternity testing, it is important for society to hold both meanings of fatherhood and the question of 'what' vs 'who' in equal importance.
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