Even below the Armstrong limit, an abrupt decrease in atmospheric pressure can cause venous gas bubbles and decompression sickness. A sudden change from sea-level pressure to pressures as low as those at 5,500m (18,000ft) can cause altitude-induced decompression sickness.[25]
Acclimatization
The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the carotid bodies, which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (hyperpnea). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of respiratory alkalosis, inhibiting the respiratory center from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.[2][26]
In addition, at high altitude, the heart beats faster; the stroke volume is slightly decreased;[27] and non-essential bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the body suppresses the digestive system in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary reserves).[28]
Full acclimatization requires days or even weeks. Gradually, the body compensates for the respiratory alkalosis by renal excretion of bicarbonate, allowing adequate respiration to provide oxygen without risking alkalosis. It takes about four days at any given altitude and can be enhanced by drugs such as acetazolamide.[26] Eventually, the body undergoes physiological changes such as lower lactate production (because reduced glucose breakdown decreases the amount of lactate formed), decreased plasma volume, increased hematocrit (polycythemia), increased RBC mass, a higher concentration of capillaries in skeletal muscle tissue, increased myoglobin, increased mitochondria, increased aerobic enzyme concentration, increase in 2,3-BPG, hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, and right ventricular hypertrophy.[2][29] Pulmonary artery pressure increases in an effort to oxygenate more blood.
Compared with acclimatized newcomers, native Amhara, Andean and Himalayan populations have better oxygenation at birth, enlarged lung volumes throughout life, and a higher capacity for exercise.[1] Tibetans demonstrate a sustained increase in cerebral blood flow, elevated resting ventilation, lower hemoglobin concentration (at elevations below 4000 metres),[37] and less susceptibility to chronic mountain sickness (CMS).[1][38] Andeans possess a similar suite of adaptations but exhibit elevated hemoglobin concentration and a normal resting ventilation.[39] These adaptations may reflect the longer history of high altitude habitation in these regions.[40][41]
A lower mortality rate from cardiovascular disease is observed for residents at higher altitudes.[42] Similarly, a dose–response relationship exists between increasing elevation and decreasing obesity prevalence in the United States.[43] This is not explained by migration alone.[44] On the other hand, people living at higher elevations also have a higher rate of suicide in the United States.[45] The correlation between elevation and suicide risk was present even when the researchers control for known suicide risk factors, including age, gender, race, and income. Research has also indicated that oxygen levels are unlikely to be a factor, considering that there is no indication of increased mood disturbances at high altitude in those with sleep apnea or in heavy smokers at high altitude. The cause for the increased suicide risk is as yet unknown.[45]
Mitigation
Mitigation may be by supplementary oxygen, pressurisation of the habitat or environmental protection suit, or a combination of both. In all cases the critical effect is the raising of oxygen partial pressure in the breathing gas.[1]
Room air at altitude can be enriched with oxygen without introducing an unacceptable fire hazard. At an altitude of 8000 m the equivalent altitude in terms of oxygen partial pressure can be reduced to below 4000 m without increasing the fire hazard beyond that of normal sea level atmospheric air. In practice this can be done using oxygen concentrators.[46]
Other hazards
The ambient air temperature is predictably affected by altitude, and this also has physiological effects on people exposed to high altitudes. The temperature effects and their mitigation are not inherently different from temperature effects from other causes, but the effects of temperature and pressure are cumulative.
The temperature of the atmosphere decreases by a lapse rate, mostly caused by convection and the adiabatic expansion of air with decreasing pressure.[47] At the peak of Mount Everest, the average summer temperature is −19°C (−2°F) and the average winter temperature is −36°C (−33°F).[48] At such low temperatures, frostbite and hypothermia become risks to humans. Frostbite is a skininjury that occurs when exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues,[49] commonly affecting the fingers, toes, nose, ears, cheeks and chin areas.[50] Hypothermia is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0°C (95.0°F) in humans.[51] Symptoms range from shivering and mental confusion,[52] to hallucinations and cardiac arrest.[51]
In addition to cold injuries, breathing cold air can cause dehydration, because the air is warmed to body temperature and humidified from body moisture.[18]
There is also a higher risk of sunburn due to the reduced blocking of ultraviolet by the thinner atmosphere.[53][54] The amount of UVA increases approximately 9% with every increase of altitude by 1,000 metres (3,300ft).[55] Symptoms of sunburn include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch or painful, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. Other symptoms include blistering, peeling skin, swelling, itching, and nausea.
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