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中国の君主は、古代および帝国時代の中国を支配した。[a]伝統的な中国の歴史学における最古の支配者は神話に由来し、その後に非常に不確かで史実性が議論されている夏王朝が続く。その後の商王朝（紀元前 1600年頃-1046年）と周王朝（紀元前1046年-256年）の間、支配者は王を意味する王王と呼ばれた。[4]中国は秦の始皇帝（在位紀元前259年-210年）によって初めて完全に統一され、彼は最初の帝国王朝を樹立し、皇帝を意味する皇帝の称号を採用した。この称号は1912年に帝国制度が崩壊するまで使用され続けた。[4]
古代中国や帝政中国には、統治者の間で正当な継承権を与える正式な手段は存在しなかった。[5]周王朝以降、君主たちは天命（天明）を主張することで自らの統治を正当化した。[6] [b]天命は、統治者とその後継者は効果的に統治する限り、天から統治の許可を得ているとしていた。[ 6]また、天命は統治者を天子（天子）と宣言し、「天下すべて」（天下）を統治する権利を与えた。[ 10 ]天命の主観的性質を考慮して、統治者たちは支持を維持し、自らの即位を正当化するためにさまざまな方法を利用した。[6]これには、軍事的強制、政治的後援、平和と結束の確立、制度改革、歴史修正主義などがあり、前王朝の解体と自らの継承を正当化した。 [ 11 ]中国の帝国のほとんどでは、五行（「五つの要素」）の哲学体系も王朝継承を正当化する上で中心的な役割を果たしました。[12]
中国の君主の多くは多くの名前を持っていた。誕生時に個人名（名字; Mingzi ）が与えられたが、文化的命名タブーのため、後に功績や人格を記念する諡号（謚號; Shihao ）で呼ばれるようになった。[13]帝国時代の皇帝のほとんどは、祖先崇拝で崇拝するために寺院名（廟號; Miaohao ）も与えられた。[14]漢の武帝（在位紀元前141-87年）の治世以降、 [c]皇帝は1つまたは複数の年号（年號; Nianhao）、つまり「統治のモットー」を採用し、[17]重要な出来事や功績によって統治を区分した。[18]明（1368-1644）と清（1644-1912）の統治者は年号のみで呼ばれ、年号は1つしかなかった。[19]
中国は漢民族の支配者以外にも、女真族、契丹族、満州族、モンゴル族、タングート族など、様々な非漢民族の君主によって統治されていました。[20]非漢民族の支配者は、自らの統治を正当化するために、儒教の賢者や中国仏教のチャクラヴァルティと連携することがありました。[5]多くの王国が競合して王位を主張した長い期間が数多くあり、その多くは今でも学者によって正当性が議論されています。[20]
古代中国
神話の支配者
中国の伝統的な歴史学では、神話上の建国の父の様々なモデルが存在する。[21]これらの人物と最古の中国人との関連性は不明である。なぜなら、それらに関する記述のほとんどは、戦国時代（紀元前 475年～221年頃）以降に書かれたものであるからである。[22]中国学者の張光志は、典型的な段階を一般化して、「最初の時代は神々が住み、2番目は半神/文化的英雄が住み、3番目は伝説の王が住んでいた」としている。[23]原始神盤古は、多くの文献で最古の人物として挙げられており、天と地を分けて世界を作ったとされている。 [24]他の神々には、天を修復した女媧、神話上の弓矢使いである后羿、蛇のような水の神である公公がいる。[25]
中国神話の中で最も大きなグループである英雄神話に登場する半神や英雄の統治者は、特定の物品、慣習、伝統を発明したとされている。[26]彼らの中でも重要な人物としては、狩猟を発明した伏羲、火を発明した綏仁、農業と医学の両方を発明した神農などがいる。 [27]その後の伝説上の王は、中国文明の主要な文化的英雄であり、その治世は模範的であると考えられていた黄帝で始まった。 [27]その後の統治者には、少浩、荘厳、玖帝、堯帝、舜帝などが混在している。[28]戦国時代後期以降、初期の中国君主は伝統的に三皇五帝の概念に根ざしてきたが、[28]このグループに含まれる人物は資料によって大きく異なっている。[27]一般的に、ほとんどの記述では、少なくとも伏羲と神農が三帝に含まれ、黄帝、堯、舜が五帝に含まれています。[28]
夏王朝
伝統的な歴史学では、三皇五帝の時代の後に夏王朝が続いたとされている。[29]禹大帝によって建国されたこの王朝とその統治者の歴史性は、非常に不確かで議論の多いものである。[29] [30]
(#) – 正当性が不確か
商王朝（紀元前1600年頃～紀元前1046年）
夏王朝とは異なり、商王朝の歴史性は、甲骨と呼ばれる占いの道具に書かれた記録によってしっかりと確立されています。最も古い甲骨は、武定（1250-1192）の治世中の商末期（紀元前 1250-1046年頃）のものであり、それ以前の統治者の正確な詳細は疑問視されています。[43] [44]
(#) – 正当性が不確か
周王朝（紀元前1046年～紀元前256年）
初期の中国帝国
秦王朝（紀元前221年～207年）
漢と新の時代（紀元前202年～紀元220年）
(#) – 正当性が争われている
六つの王朝
三国時代（220～280年）
曹魏（220–266）
蜀漢（221–263）
東呉（222–280）
晋（266年～420年）
十六王国（304–439）
南北朝時代（420年～589年）
北朝時代（420年～581年）
南朝時代（420年～589年）
帝国中期の中国
隋代（581-619）
唐・周時代（618～907年）
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
Five Dynasties (907–912)
Ten Kingdoms (907–979)
Late imperial China
Song dynasty (960–1279)
Northern regimes (916–1234)
Liao dynasty (916–1125)
Western Xia (1038–1227)
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
References
Notes
- ^ Contemporary scholars often split Chinese history into three periods: Ancient, Imperial and Modern, based on the Ancient, Medieval and Modern scheme developed by Liang Qichao.[1] In Chinese history, "Medieval"—originally defined as from the Qin to Qing dynasties—has since been replaced by "Imperial".[2] "Medieval" now refers to the more specific period from the End of the Han dynasty through the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.[3]
- ^ The Mandate of Heaven is essentially equivalent to the European divine right of kings.[7] It was first formally introduced by the Duke of Zhou to justify his house's overthrow of the Shang.[7] Prior to this, the Shang kings justified their rule by being claiming descent from a "divine ancestor",[8] and being able to interpret, manipulate and maintain cosmic relations between humans and heaven (天; Tian).[9]
- ^ Although era names originated in the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE),[15] his two immediate predecessors Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157) and Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141) were also given era names later.[16]
- ^ All reign dates for the Xia rulers are excluded. They are highly speculative, due to their dependence on the already uncertain beginning and ending dates of the dynasty
- ^ The traditional dating method (beginning the Shang in 1766) is not included in this table. See Liu et al. 2021, pp. 165, 169 for another, more recent, method of dating
- ^ Zu Ji, another son of Wu Ding is given a kingly title in some oracle bone texts, but did probably not reign.[61]
- ^ In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply "Shi Huangdi", but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. His dynastic name is commonly abbreviated to 'Qin Shi Huang'. In its fullest form, it would be: Qin Shi Huangdi (秦始皇帝)[4]
- ^ Qin Shi Huang began his reign as king of Qin in 246 BCE, but did not unite China and proclaim himself Emperor (皇帝 Huangdi) until 221 BCE.[81]
- ^ Moule 1957, p. 3 gives 18 July 210 BCE as the exact date for the end of Qin Shi Huang's reign, but also notes the issues surrounding this chronology. The date is accepted by Vervoorn 1990, p. 311, but it's not used by modern scholars.[82][83] Hymes 2000, p. 8 gives July–August 210 BCE, the seventh lunar month.
- ^ In its fullest form, Ying Huhai's dynastic name would be Qin Er Shi Huangdi (秦二世皇帝)[4]
- ^ Sources vary on the exact month of Qin Er Shi's accession, though they agree it was in late 210. Vervoorn 1990, p. 311 gives August 210 while Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, p. xix and Moule 1957, p. 3 give September–October 210
- ^ After Qin Er Shi's death the Qin dynasty became increasingly weaker in power, so Zhao Gao proclaimed the state was once again a kingdom, not an empire. Thus when Ziying (子嬰) ascended to the throne, he only ruled as a King of Qin.[89] After ruling for 46 days in late 207 BCE, Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang and was later killed by Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han Contention.[90][91]
- ^ Liu Bang began his peasant revolt in 209 BCE, during the collapse of the Qin dynasty. He assumed the title "King of Han" (漢王) in 206 BCE, referencing his dominions near the Han river. He only assumed the title of Emperor (皇帝; Huangdi) in 202 BCE after his victory in the Chu–Han Contention.[93]
- ^ Also known as:
Shaodi Gong
少帝恭[96] - ^ a b In order to justify Emperor Wen of Han's overthrow of the House of Lü's puppets, Houshao and Qianshao, both of the dynasty's official histories—the Shiji and Hanshu—assert that neither was actually a son of Hui.[97]
- ^ Also known as:
Shaodi Hong
少帝弘[99] - ^ a b Though most modern sources agree that Emperor Wu died on 29 March 87 BCE, Vervoorn 1990, p. 312 gives 2 March; Moule 1957, p. 5 gives 27 March.
- ^ Liu Yi reigned for less than a year, so thus did not live long enough to receive an era name[120]
- ^ de Crespigny 2010, p. 450 notes that "On 11 December [...] Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the last emperor of Han. [...] Some authorities give the date of abdication as 25 November [...] This is the date upon which Emperor Xian issued an edict calling upon Cao Pi to take the throne, but the ceremonial transfer of sovereignty was carried out two weeks later"
- ^ Not counting Ruzi Ying, who never officially ascended to the throne.
- ^ Also known as:
Duke of Haixi
海西公[151] - ^ Moule 1957, p. 34 gives 30 May 618 as the date for the end of Yang You's reign, but modern sources usually give 12 June.[240]
- ^ Also known as "Wu Hou" (武后). The title Huanghou (皇后) given to consorts it's often translated as "Empress consort" in English. Though often translated as "Emperor" in this context, the title Huangdi, as well as many other Chinese words, has no assigned gender.[247]
- ^ Li Chongmao is often referred by his posthumous name; he's also known as "Emperor Shao" (少皇帝), referencing his brief reign.
- ^ Emperor Zhaozong was briefly deposed in December 900 by eunuch Liu Jishu, but he regained the throne just a month later.[266]
- ^ Moule 1957, p. 62 gives 1 June 907 as the date for the end of Emperor Ai's reign, but Kroll 2019, p. 1 gives 5 June. Other sources give 12 May.
- ^ Emperor Gaozong was briefly deposed between March and April 1129. He was forced to abdicate in favor of his infant son Zhao Fu.[315]
- ^ Born as Zhao Bocong (趙伯琮), later changed to Zhao Wei (趙瑋) in 1160.[317]
- ^ For Taizu's alternate posthumous names, see Moule 1957, p. 94
- ^ In 1008, Taizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaowu (孝武). This was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaowu Huiwen (孝武惠文皇帝).[327]
- ^ Some sources differ over the dates for Taizong's Datong era, see Moule 1957, p. 95
- ^ In 952, Shizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaohe (孝和) this was changed in 1008 to Emperor Xiaohe Zhuangxian (孝和莊憲皇帝).[327]
- ^ In 983, Jingzong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaocheng (孝成) this was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaocheng Kangjing (孝成康靖皇帝).[327]
- ^ See Cui & Wen 2007 for further information on the complexities surrounding the names of the Western Xia rulers
- ^ a b The death of Jingzong is uncertain and contradictory in many records. He may have died in late 1047 or early 1048.[336]
- ^ Moule 1957, p. 101 notes that there is uncertainty concerning Wanyan Yongji's death date
- ^ Some uncertainty surrounds his birth and death dates, see Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, p. 353
- ^ Ukhaghatu Khan's posthumous name was given by the Ming court[356]
- ^ In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Hongwu (洪武) era did not technically end with the Hongwu Emperor's death on 24 June 1398, but ended on 5 February 1399 when the subsequent Jianwen Emperor began a new era on 6 February 1399.[358]
- ^ The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.[360]
- ^ The posthumous name Emperor Gongmin Hui was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by the Qianlong Emperor in 1736.[360]
- ^ Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment[360]
- ^ a b From 1 September 1449 to 20 September 1450, Emperor Yingzong was a captive of the Northern Yuan dynasty during the Tumu Crisis. He was restored to power on 11 February 1457.[365]
- ^ In the Qing dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Qing emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which the successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Shunzhi (順治) era did not technically end with the Shunzhi Emperor's death on 5 February 1661, but ended on 17 February 1662 when the subsequent Kangxi Emperor began a new era on 18 February 1662.[378]
- ^ There are popular, though unsubstantiated, rumors that the Yongzheng Emperor was killed by the daughter of Lü Liuliang, whom he had executed.[382]
- ^ a b The Xuantong Emperor was only given posthumous and temple names in 2004 when the Qing family's descendants bestowed him with them.[378]
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- de Crespigny, Rafe (2010). Imperial Warlord: A Biography of Cao Cao 155–220 AD. Sinica Leidensia. Vol. 99. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004185227.i-554. ISBN 978-90-04-18830-3.
- Loewe, Michael (2000). A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC – AD 24). Handbook of Oriental Studies, section four: China. Vol. 16. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/9789004490253. ISBN 978-90-04-10364-1.
- Loewe, Michael (2004). The Men Who Governed Han China: Companion to a Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods. Handbook of Oriental Studies, section four: China. Vol. 17. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/9789047413363. ISBN 978-90-04-13845-2.
- Theobald, Ulrich (8 March 2011b). "Empress Lü 呂后 or Empress Dowager Lü 呂太后". Chinaknowledge.
- Vervoorn, Aat Emile (1990). "Chronology of Dynasties and Reign Periods". Men of the Cliffs and Caves: The Development of the Chinese Eremitic Tradition to the End of the Han Dynasty. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. pp. 311–316. ISBN 978-962-201-415-2.
Six Dynasties & Mid Imperial Era
- de Crespigny, Rafe (1991). "The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD ~ I" (PDF). East Asian History. 1 (1): 1–36.
- Dien, Alfred E.; Knapp, Keith N., eds. (2019). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 2: The Six Dynasties, 220–589. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781139107334. ISBN 978-1-107-02077-1.
- Twitchett, Dennis, ed. (1979). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Wright, Arthur F. (1979). "The Sui dynasty (581–617)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–149. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.003. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "The founding of the T'ang dynasty: Kao-tsu (reign 618–26)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 150–187. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.004. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "T'ai-tsung (reign 626–49) the consolidator". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 188–241. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.005. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Twitchett, Denis; Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "Kao-tsung (reign 649–83) and the empress Wu: the inheritor and the usurper". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 242–289. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.006. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Guisso, Richard W. L. (1979). "The reigns of the empress Wu, Chung-tsung and Jui-tsung". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 290–332. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.007. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Twitchett, Denis (1979). "Hsüan-tsung (reign 712–56)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–463. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.008. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Peterson, C. A. (1979). "Court and province in mid- and late T'ang". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 464–560. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.009. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Dalby, Michael T. (1979). "Court politics in late T'ang times". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 561–681. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.010. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Somers, Robert M. (1979). "The end of the T'ang". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 682–789. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.011. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- Hong Lee, Lily Xiao, ed. (2015). "Chronology of Dynasties". Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women. Vol. 1. London: Routledge. pp. xvii–xxii. ISBN 978-1-317-47591-0.
- Kroll, Paul W. (2019). "Tang Emperors' Accession Dates and Reign Titles". Critical Readings on Tang China. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. xi–xiii. ISBN 978-90-04-38015-8.
- Liu, Puning (2020). China's Northern Wei Dynasty, 386-535. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-28322-8.
- Ouyang Xiu (2004) [1073]. "Qian Chu". Historical Records of the Five Dynasties. Translated by Davis, Richard L. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-50228-3.
- Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009). Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6053-7.
- Late Imperial Era
- Cui, Hongfen; Wen, Zhiyong (2007). "Xixia huangdi zunhao kao lue" 西夏皇帝尊号考略 [A Brief Study on the Titles of the Western Xia Emperors]. 宁夏大学学报 [Journal of Ningxia University] (1).
- Goodrich, Luther Carrington; Fang Chaoying, eds. (1976a). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-03801-0.
- Goodrich, Luther Carrington; Fang Chaoying, eds. (1976b). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644. Vol. 2. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-03833-1.
- Heirman, Ann; Meinert, Carmen; Anderl, Christoph (2018). Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia. Brill. p. 208. ISBN 978-90-04-36615-2.
- Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1943). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2 volumes. Washington: US Government Printing Office. OCLC 3443954.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 255–259.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 327–331.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 915–920.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 369–373.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 965–969.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 574–576.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 378–380.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 729–731.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 731–734.
- Kennedy, George A. (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 176–177.
- Kennedy, George A. (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. p. 190.
- Kennedy, George A. (1943). . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 191–192.
- Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis, eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Langlois, John D. (1988). "The Hung-wu reign, 1368–1398". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Chan, Hok-lam (1988). "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns, 1399–1435". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Twitchett, Denis; Grimm, Tilemann (1988). "The Cheng-t'ung, Ching-t'ai, and T'ien-shun reigns, 1436—1464". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Mote, Frederick W. (1988). "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465—1505". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Geiss, James (1988). "The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Geiss, James (1988). "The Chia-ching reign, 1522–1566". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Huang, Ray (1988). "The Lung-ch'ing and Wan-li reigns, 1567—1620". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Atwell, William (1988). "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Peterson, Willard J., ed. (2002). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
- Dennerline, Jerry (2002). "The Shun-chih Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
- Spence, Jonathan (2002). "The K'ang-hsi Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
- Zelin, Madeleine (2002). "The Yung-cheng Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
- Woodside, Alexander (2002). "The Ch'ien-lung Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
- Schneider, Julia (2011). "The Jin Revisited: New Assessment of Jurchen Emperors". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 41 (41): 343–404. doi:10.1353/sys.2011.0030. hdl:1854/LU-2045182. JSTOR 23496214. S2CID 162237648.
- Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov, eds. (2009). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Lau, Nap-yin; Huang, K'uan-chung (2009). "Founding and Consolidation of the Sung Dynasty under T'ai-tsu (960–976), T'ai-tsung (976–997), and Chen-tsung (997–1022)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- McGrath, Michael (2009). "The Reigns of Jen-tsung (1022–1063) and Ying-tsung (1063–1067)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Smith, Paul Jakov (2009). "Shen-tsung's Reign and the New Policies of Wang An-shih, 1067–1085". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Levine, Ari Daniel (2009). "Che-tsung's Reign (1085–1100) and the Age of Faction". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Levine, Ari Daniel (2009). "The Reigns of Hui-tsung (1100–1126) and Ch'in-tsung". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Tao, Jing-Shen (2009). "The Move to the South and the Reign of Kao-tsung (1127–1162)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Gong, Wei Ai (2009). "The Reign of Hsiao-tsung (1162–1189)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reigns of Kuang-tsung (1189–1194) and Ning-tsung (1194–1224)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reign of Li-tsung (1224–1264)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reign of Tu-tsung (1264–1274) and His Successors to 1279". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
- Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert, eds. (1994). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
- Ch'i-Ch'ing, Hsiao (1994). "Mid-Yüan politics". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
- Dardess, John (1994). "Shun-ti and the end of Yüan rule in China". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
- Dunnell, Ruth (1994). "The Hsi Hsia". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
- Twitchett, Denis; Tietze, Klaus-Peter (1994). "The Liao". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
- Rossabi, Morris (1994). "The reign of Khubilai khan". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
- General
- Adamek, Piotr (2017). "Chronological Index". Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values. Monumenta Serica Monograph Series. Vol. LXVI. London: Routledge. pp. 337–359. ISBN 978-1-351-56521-9.
- Biran, Michal (2017). "Periods of Non-Han Rule". In Szonyi, Michael (ed.). A Companion to Chinese History. Hoboken: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-62460-9.
- Chen, Yuan (2014). "Legitimation Discourse and the Theory of the Five Elements in Imperial China". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 44: 325–364. doi:10.1353/sys.2014.0000. JSTOR 44511246.
- Hymes, Robert (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11004-4.
- Morton, W. Scott; Lewis, Charlton M. (2004). China: Its History and Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-146526-7.
- Moule, Arthur C. (1957). The Rulers of China, 221 BC-AD 1949. London: Routledge. OCLC 223359908.
- Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05090-3.
- San, Tan Koon (2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. New York: Other Press. ISBN 978-983-9541-88-5.
- Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011a). "Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge.
- Wilkinson, Endymion (2018). Chinese History: A New Manual (5th ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 978-0-9988883-0-9.
- Wright, David Curtis (2001). The History of China. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-30940-3.
- Xiong, Victor Cunrui; Hammond, Kenneth J. (2019). Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-58051-3.
- Wang, Aihe (2000). Cosmology and Political Culture in Early China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62420-6.
- Wechsler, Howard J. (1985). Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03191-1.
- Wright, Arthur F.; Fagan, Edward (1951). "Era names and Zeitgeist". Asiatische Studien. 5: 131–121. doi:10.5169/seals-145321.
- Imperial China: The Definitive Visual History. New York: DK and Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. 2020. ISBN 978-0-7440-2047-2.
Further reading
- Du Jianmin (1995). Zhongguo lidai diwang shixi nianbiao 中国历代帝王世系年表 [Genealogical Tables of Chinese Emperors and Kings in Successive Dynasties] (in Chinese). Jinan: Qi-Lu. ISBN 978-7-5333-0422-5. OCLC 646288082.
- Khmaladze, Estate V.; Brownrigg, Ray; Haywood, John (December 2010). "Memoryless Reigns of the "Sons of Heaven"「国際統計レビュー. 78 (3): 348–362. doi :10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00119.x. JSTOR 27919858. S2CID 118023202.
- Yu Baolin (源宝林) (2010)。中華李志ジニアン・ゾンビアオ 中华历史纪年表[中国歴史総年表] (中国語)。北京：社会科学文先初版社。ISBN 978-7-5097-1088-3. OCLC 500980080.
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