Many pre-Columbian civilizations established permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, and complex societal hierarchies. In North America, indigenous cultures in the Lower Mississippi Valley during the Middle Archaic period built complexes of multiple mounds, with several in Louisiana dated to 5600–5000 BP (3700 BC–3100 BC). Watson Brake is considered the oldest, multiple mound complex in the Americas, as it has been dated to 3500 BC. It and other Middle Archaic sites were built by pre-ceramic, hunter-gatherer societies. They preceded the better known Poverty Point culture and its elaborate complex by nearly 2,000 years.[1] The Mississippi Valley mound-building tradition extended into the Late Archaic period, longer than what later southeastern mound building dependent on sedentary, agricultural societies.(Russo, 1996:285)[1]
Some of these civilizations had long ceased to function by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th – early 16th centuries), and are known only through archaeological investigations or oral history from nations today. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Olmec, Maya, Mixtec, and Nahua had their own written records. However, most Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical and burned most of them. Only a few documents were hidden and thus remain today, leaving modern historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.
From both indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American civilizations at the time of European encounter possessed many impressive attributes, having populous cities, and having developed theories of astronomy and mathematics.
Where they persist, the societies and cultures which gave rise to these civilizations continue to adapt and evolve; they also uphold various traditions and practices which relate back to these earlier times, even if combined with those more recently adopted.
Human sacrifice was a religious practice principally characteristic of pre-Columbian Aztec civilization, although other Mesoamerican civilizations like the Maya and the Zapotec practiced it as well. The extent of the practice is debated by modern scholars.
12Robert W. Preucel, Stephen A. Mrozowski, Contemporary Archaeology in Theory: The New Pragmatism, John Wiley and Sons, 2010, p. 177
123456Rouse, I. (1992). The Tainos: Rise & Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. Yale University Press. ISBN0-300-05181-6.
↑"Aboriginal Roots of Cuban Culture." (retrieved 9 July 2011)
1234567"Prehistory of the Caribbean Culture Area."Archived 2011-08-05 at the Wayback MachineSoutheast Archaeological Center. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
12Hanna, J. A. (2019). "Camáhogne's chronology: The radiocarbon settlement sequence on Grenada, West Indies". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 55 101075. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2019.101075. ISSN0278-4165.
↑John Albert Bullbrook, The aboriginal remains of Trinidad and the West Indies, A. L. Rhodes, Port of Spain, Trinidad, 1941
↑John Albert Bullbrook, The Ierian Race, Historical Society of Trinidad and Tobago, Port of Spain, Trinidad, 1940
↑"Laser mapping reveals oldest Amazonian cities, built 2500 years ago".
Sources
Pieroni, Agustín (2015). El virreino y los virreyes[The Viceroyalty and the Viceroys] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires. ISBN978-987-02-8164-1. OCLC936228861.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
External links
National Museum of the American Indian, collections search
Pre-Columbian cultures in present-day United States, Four Directions Institute
