↑Contemporary scholars often split Chinese history into three periods: Ancient, Imperial and Modern, based on the Ancient, Medieval and Modern scheme developed by Liang Qichao.[1] In Chinese history, "Medieval"—originally defined as from the Qin to Qing dynasties—has since been replaced by "Imperial".[2] "Medieval" now refers to the more specific period from the End of the Han dynasty through the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.[3]
↑The Mandate of Heaven is essentially equivalent to the European divine right of kings.[7] It was first formally introduced by the Duke of Zhou to justify his house's overthrow of the Shang.[7] Prior to this, the Shang kings justified their rule by being claiming descent from a "divine ancestor",[8] and being able to interpret, manipulate and maintain cosmic relations between humans and heaven (天; Tiān).[9]
↑All reign dates for the Xia rulers are excluded. They are highly speculative, due to their dependence on the already uncertain beginning and ending dates of the dynasty
↑The traditional dating method (beginning the Shang in 1766) is not included in this table. See Liu et al. 2021, pp.165, 169 for another, more recent, method of dating
↑Zu Ji, another son of Wu Ding is given a kingly title in some oracle bone texts, but did probably not reign.[61]
↑In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply "Shi Huangdi", but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. His dynastic name is commonly abbreviated to 'Qin Shi Huang'. In its fullest form, it would be: Qin Shi Huangdi (秦始皇帝)[4]
↑Moule 1957, p.3 gives 18 July 210 BCE as the exact date for the end of Qin Shi Huang's reign, but also notes the issues surrounding this chronology. The date is accepted by Vervoorn 1990, p.311, but it's not used by modern scholars.[82][83]Hymes 2000, p.8 gives July–August 210 BCE, the seventh lunar month.
↑In its fullest form, Ying Huhai's dynastic name would be Qin Er Shi Huangdi (秦二世皇帝)[4]
↑After Qin Er Shi's death the Qin dynasty became increasingly weaker in power, and when Ziying (子嬰) ascended to the throne, he only ruled as a King (Wang) of Qin.[89] After ruling for 46 days in late 207 BCE, Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang and was later killed by Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han Contention.[90][91]
↑Liu Bang began his peasant revolt in 209 BCE, during the collapse of the Qin dynasty. He assumed the title "King of Han" (漢王) in 206 BCE, referencing his dominions near the Han river. He only assumed the title of Emperor (皇帝; Huangdi) in 202 BCE after his victory in the Chu–Han Contention.[93]
12In order to justify Emperor Wen of Han's overthrow of the House of Lü's puppets, Houshao and Qianshao, both of the dynasty's official histories—the Shiji and Hanshu—assert that neither was actually a son of Hui.[97]
12Though most modern sources agree that Emperor Wu died on 29 March 87 BCE, Vervoorn 1990, p.312 gives 2 March; Moule 1957, p.5 gives 27 March.
↑Not counting Ruzi Ying, who never officially ascended to the throne.
↑Liu Yi reigned for less than a year, so thus did not live long enough to receive an era name[120]
↑de Crespigny 2010, p.450 notes that "On 11 December [...] Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the last emperor of Han. [...] Some authorities give the date of abdication as 25 November [...] This is the date upon which Emperor Xian issued an edict calling upon Cao Pi to take the throne, but the ceremonial transfer of sovereignty was carried out two weeks later"
↑Not counting Ruzi Ying, who never officially ascended to the throne.
↑Moule 1957, p.34 gives 30 May 618 as the date for the end of Yang You's reign, but modern sources usually give 12 June.[240]
↑Also known as "Wu Hou" (武后). The title Huanghou (皇后) given to consorts it's often translated as "Empress consort" in English. Though often translated as "Emperor" in this context, the title Huangdi, as well as many other Chinese words, has no assigned gender.[247]
↑For the rival short-lived dynasty of An Lushan, see Yan (An–Shi). The rebels ruled most of China for a few months, after capturing both Luoyang and Chang'an, the imperial capitals.
↑Emperor Zhaozong was briefly deposed in December 900 by eunuch Liu Jishu, but he regained the throne just a month later.[266]
↑Moule 1957, p.62 gives 1 June 907 as the date for the end of Emperor Ai's reign, but Kroll 2019, p.1 gives 5 June. Other sources give 12 May.
↑Emperor Gaozong was briefly deposed between March and April 1129. He was forced to abdicate in favor of his infant son Zhao Fu.[315]
↑Born as Zhao Bocong (趙伯琮), later changed to Zhao Wei (趙瑋) in 1160.[317]
↑In 1008, Taizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaowu (孝武). This was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaowu Huiwen (孝武惠文皇帝).[327]
↑Some sources differ over the dates for Taizong's Datong era, see Moule 1957, p.95
↑In 952, Shizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaohe (孝和) this was changed in 1008 to Emperor Xiaohe Zhuangxian (孝和莊憲皇帝).[327]
↑In 983, Jingzong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaocheng (孝成) this was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaocheng Kangjing (孝成康靖皇帝).[327]
↑See Cui & Wen 2007 for further information on the complexities surrounding the names of the Western Xia rulers
12The death of Jingzong is uncertain and contradictory in many records. He may have died in late 1047 or early 1048.[336]
↑In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Hongwu (洪武) era did not technically end with the Hongwu Emperor's death on 24 June 1398, but ended on 5 February 1399 when the subsequent Jianwen Emperor began a new era on 6 February 1399.[358]
↑Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment[360]
↑In the Qing dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Qing emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which the successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Shunzhi (順治) era did not technically end with the Shunzhi Emperor's death on 5 February 1661, but ended on 17 February 1662 when the subsequent Kangxi Emperor began a new era on 18 February 1662.[378]
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Li, Xueqin (2012). "谈新出现的妇妌爵" [On the newly discovered jue of Fu Jing]. Wenbo (3): 13–14.
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Eno, Robert (2006). "Shang Kingship and Shang Kinship"(PDF). Indiana University. Archived from the original(PDF) on 9 April 2008.
Early Imperial Era
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Loewe, Michael (2004). The Men Who Governed Han China: Companion to a Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods. Handbook of Oriental Studies, section four: China. Vol.17. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/9789047413363. ISBN978-90-04-13845-2.
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Six Dynasties & Mid Imperial Era
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Dien, Alfred E.; Knapp, Keith N., eds. (2019). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 2: The Six Dynasties, 220–589. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781139107334. ISBN978-1-107-02077-1.
Wright, Arthur F. (1979). "The Sui dynasty (581–617)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.48–149. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.003. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "The founding of the T'ang dynasty: Kao-tsu (reign 618–26)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.150–187. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.004. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "T'ai-tsung (reign 626–49) the consolidator". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.188–241. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.005. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Twitchett, Denis; Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "Kao-tsung (reign 649–83) and the empress Wu: the inheritor and the usurper". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.242–289. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.006. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Guisso, Richard W. L. (1979). "The reigns of the empress Wu, Chung-tsung and Jui-tsung". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.290–332. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.007. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Twitchett, Denis (1979). "Hsüan-tsung (reign 712–56)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.333–463. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.008. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Peterson, C. A. (1979). "Court and province in mid- and late T'ang". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.464–560. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.009. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Dalby, Michael T. (1979). "Court politics in late T'ang times". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.561–681. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.010. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Somers, Robert M. (1979). "The end of the T'ang". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.682–789. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214469.011. ISBN978-0-521-21446-9.
Hong Lee, Lily Xiao, ed. (2015). "Chronology of Dynasties". Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women. Vol.1. London: Routledge. pp.xvii–xxii. ISBN978-1-317-47591-0.
Kroll, Paul W. (2019). "Tang Emperors' Accession Dates and Reign Titles". Critical Readings on Tang China. Vol.1. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp.xi–xiii. ISBN978-90-04-38015-8.
Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009). Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN978-0-8108-6053-7.
Late Imperial Era
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Twitchett, Denis; Grimm, Tilemann (1988). "The Cheng-t'ung, Ching-t'ai, and T'ien-shun reigns, 1436—1464". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-24332-2.
Atwell, William (1988). "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-24332-2.
Dennerline, Jerry (2002). "The Shun-chih Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-24334-6.
Woodside, Alexander (2002). "The Ch'ien-lung Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-24334-6.
Schneider, Julia (2011). "The Jin Revisited: New Assessment of Jurchen Emperors". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 41 (41): 343–404. doi:10.1353/sys.2011.0030. hdl:1854/LU-2045182. JSTOR23496214. S2CID162237648.
Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov, eds. (2009). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Lau, Nap-yin; Huang, K'uan-chung (2009). "Founding and Consolidation of the Sung Dynasty under T'ai-tsu (960–976), T'ai-tsung (976–997), and Chen-tsung (997–1022)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
McGrath, Michael (2009). "The Reigns of Jen-tsung (1022–1063) and Ying-tsung (1063–1067)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Smith, Paul Jakov (2009). "Shen-tsung's Reign and the New Policies of Wang An-shih, 1067–1085". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Levine, Ari Daniel (2009). "Che-tsung's Reign (1085–1100) and the Age of Faction". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Levine, Ari Daniel (2009). "The Reigns of Hui-tsung (1100–1126) and Ch'in-tsung". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Tao, Jing-Shen (2009). "The Move to the South and the Reign of Kao-tsung (1127–1162)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Gong, Wei Ai (2009). "The Reign of Hsiao-tsung (1162–1189)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reigns of Kuang-tsung (1189–1194) and Ning-tsung (1194–1224)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reign of Li-tsung (1224–1264)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reign of Tu-tsung (1264–1274) and His Successors to 1279". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81248-1.
Twitchett, Denis; Tietze, Klaus-Peter (1994). "The Liao". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-24331-5.
Gao, James Z. (2009). Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800–1949). Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN978-0-8108-6308-8.
Geng, Yunzhi (2014). An Introductory Study on China's Cultural Transformation in Recent Times. Springer. ISBN978-3-662-44590-7.
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Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press. ISBN978-0-295-98040-9.
General
Adamek, Piotr (2017). "Chronological Index". Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values. Monumenta Serica Monograph Series. Vol.LXVI. London: Routledge. pp.337–359. ISBN978-1-351-56521-9.
Biran, Michal (2017). "Periods of Non-Han Rule". In Szonyi, Michael (ed.). A Companion to Chinese History. Hoboken: Wiley. ISBN978-1-118-62460-9.
Chen, Yuan (2014). "Legitimation Discourse and the Theory of the Five Elements in Imperial China". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 44: 325–364. doi:10.1353/sys.2014.0000. JSTOR44511246.
Hymes, Robert (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia: Columbia University Press. ISBN978-0-231-11004-4.
Morton, W. Scott; Lewis, Charlton M. (2004). China: Its History and Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN978-0-07-146526-7.
Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN978-0-500-05090-3.
San, Tan Koon (2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. New York: Other Press. ISBN978-983-9541-88-5.
Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011a). "Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge.
Xiong, Victor Cunrui; Hammond, Kenneth J. (2019). Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-367-58051-3.
Wang, Aihe (2000). Cosmology and Political Culture in Early China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-62420-6.
Wechsler, Howard J. (1985). Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-03191-1.
