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The British Aerospace Harrier II is a second-generation vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) jet aircraft used previously by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and, between 2006 and 2010, the Royal Navy (RN). The aircraft was the latest development of the Harrier family, and was derived from the McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II. Initial deliveries of the Harrier II were designated in service as Harrier GR5; subsequently upgraded airframes were redesignated accordingly as GR7 and GR9.
Under the Joint Force Harrier organisation, both the RAF and RN operated the Harrier II under the RAF's Air Command, including deployments on board the navy's Invincible-class aircraft carriers. The Harrier II participated in numerous conflicts, making significant contributions in combat theatres such as Kosovo, Iraq, and Afghanistan. The type's main function was as a platform for air interdiction and close air support missions; the Harrier II was also used for power projection and reconnaissance duties. The Harrier II served alongside the Sea Harrier in Joint Force Harrier.
In December 2010, budgetary pressures led to the early retirement of all Harrier IIs from service, at which point it was the last of the Harrier derivatives remaining in British service. In March 2011, the decision to retire the Harrier was controversial as there was no immediate fixed-wing replacement in its role or fixed-wing carrier-capable aircraft left in service at the time; in the long term, the Harrier II was replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II.
Development of a much more powerful successor to the Harrier began in 1973 as a cooperative effort between McDonnell Douglas (MDD) in the US and Hawker Siddeley (in 1977, its aviation interests were nationalised to form part of British Aerospace) in the UK. First-generation Harriers were being introduced into Royal Air Force and United States Marine Corps; operational experience had highlighted demand for a more capable aircraft. The British government had only a minor requirement, for up to 60 Harriers at most and competing pressures on the defence budget left little room for frivolous expenditure such as the Advanced Harrier. A lack of government backing for developing the necessary engine of the new aircraft, the Pegasus 15, led Hawker to withdraw from this project in 1975.[3][4]
Due to US interest, work proceeded on the development of a less ambitious successor, a Harrier fitted with a larger wing and making use of composite materials in its construction. Two prototypes were built from existing aircraft and flew in 1978. The US government was content to continue if a major foreign buyer was found and Britain had a plan to improve the Harrier with a new, larger metal wing.[5][N 1] In 1980, the UK considered if the American program would meet their requirements – their opinion was that it required modification, thus the MDD wing design was altered to incorporate the British-designed leading-edge root extensions.[7] In 1982, the UK opted to become fully involved in the joint US–UK programme.[8] The US and UK agreement to proceed included a British contribution of US$280 million to cover development costs to meet their own requirements and to purchase at least 60 aircraft.[9]
The UK agreement included the involvement of British Aerospace (BAe) as a major subcontractor, manufacturing sections such as the rear fuselage for all customers of the AV-8B. The Harrier II was an Anglicised version of the AV-8B, British Aerospace producing the aircraft as the prime contractor, with McDonnell Douglas serving as a sub-contractor; final assembly work was performed at Dunsfold, England.[10] The first prototype flew in 1981, first BAe-built development GR5 flew for the first time on 30 April 1985 and the aircraft entered service in July 1987. The GR5 had many differences from the USMC AV-8B Harriers, such as avionics fit, armaments and equipment; the wing of the GR5 featured a stainless steel leading edge, giving it different flex characteristics from the AV-8B.[11] In December 1989, the first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier II was declared operational.[12]
The Harrier II is an extensively modified version of the first generation Harrier GR1/GR3 series. The original aluminium alloy fuselage was replaced with one made extensively of composites, providing significant weight reduction and increased payload or range. A new one-piece wing provides around 14 per cent more area and increased thickness. The wing and leading-edge root extensions allows for a 6,700-pound (3,035 kg) payload increase over a 1,000 ft (300 m) takeoff compared with the first generation Harriers.[13][14] The RAF's Harrier IIs feature an additional missile pylon in front of each wing landing gear, as well as strengthened leading edges on the wings in order to meet higher bird strike requirements.[15] Among the major differences with the American cousin, was the new ZEUS Electronic countermeasure (ECM) system, also proposed for the USMC AV-8 (which retained, after an evaluation, the original ALQ-164). ZEUS was one of the main systems in the British design, being a modern and costly apparatus, with an estimated cost of $1.7 million per set.[16]
The Harrier II's cockpit has day and night operability and is equipped with head-up display (HUD), two head-down displays known as multi-purpose colour displays (MPCD), a digital moving map, an inertial navigation system (INS), and a hands-on-throttle-and-stick system (HOTAS).[17][18] Like the British Aerospace Sea Harrier, the Harrier II used an elevated bubble canopy to provide a significantly improved all-round view.[19] A combination of the new design of the control system and the greater lateral stability of the aircraft made the Harrier II fundamentally easier to fly than the first generation Harrier GR1/GR3 models.[20]
The RAF used Harriers in the ground attack and reconnaissance roles, so they relied on the short-range AIM-9 Sidewinder missile for air combat. The Sidewinder had proven effective for Royal Navy's Sea Harriers against Argentinian Mirages in the Falklands War; however, from 1993 the Sea Harrier FA2 could also carry the much longer-range AIM-120 AMRAAM, a radar-guided missile. The Sea Harrier had a radar since its introduction and the USMC later equipped their AV-8B Harriers with a radar as part of the AV-8B+ upgrade; however Britain's Harrier IIs never carried a radar. When the Sea Harrier was retired, it was suggested that its Blue Vixen radar could be transferred to the Harrier IIs. However, the Ministry of Defence rejected this as risky and too expensive; the Armed Forces MinisterAdam Ingram estimated that the cost would be in excess of £600 million.[21][N 2]
Even prior to the Harrier GR5 entering service, it was clear that alterations were required for the aircraft to be more capable in the interdictor role. A more advanced model, designated as the Harrier GR7, was developed primarily to add a night-time operational capability and avionics improvements.[23][N 3] The GR7 development programme operated in conjunction with a similar USMC initiative upon its AV-8B Harrier fleet.[25][26] Additional avionics include a nose-mounted forward-looking infrared (FLIR) and night vision goggles, a missile approach warning system (MAW),[27] an electronic countermeasures suite, new cockpit displays and a replacement moving map system.[28] The GR7 conducted its maiden flight in May 1990 and entered service in August 1990.[29] Following the full delivery of 34 Harrier GR7s in 1991, all of the GR5s underwent avionics upgrades to become GR7s as well.[30]
Some GR7s were equipped with uprated Rolls-Royce Pegasus engines, correspondingly redesignated as GR7A; these Harriers had significantly improved takeoff and landing capabilities, and could carry greater payloads.[31][N 4] In order to guide laser-guided bombs, from 1998 onwards a number of TIALD laser designator pods were made available to the Harrier II fleet, however these proved to be extremely scarce and often unavailable for pilot training.[33] In response to difficulties experienced while communicating with NATO aircraft during the 1999 Kosovo War, the GR7s were upgraded with encrypted communications equipment.[34]
A further major upgrade programme from the GR7 standard was conducted; the Harrier GR9. The GR9 was developed via the Joint Update and Maintenance Programme (JUMP), which significantly upgraded the Harrier fleet's avionics, communications systems, and weapons capabilities during scheduled periods of maintenance in an incremental manner.[35] The upgrade also replaced the composite rear fuselage of the GR7 with one made of metal which was less vulnerable to damage from engine vibrations.[36] The first of the incremental improvements started with software upgrades to the communications, ground proximity warning and navigation systems, followed by the integration of the AGM-65 Maverick air-to-ground missile.[35] Capability C added the RAF's Rangeless Airborne Instrumentation Debriefing System (RAIDS), Raytheon's Successor Identification Friend or Foe (SIFF) system and the Paveway guided bombs.[35] The Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod (DJRP) was added as part of Capability D.[35]
In February 2007, handling trials of the MBDA Brimstone (missile) began,[35] however the Brimstone would remain uncleared for deployment on the GR9 by the type's early retirement.[37] The Sniper targeting pod replaced the less accurate TIALD in 2007, under an Urgent Operational Requirement (UOR) for Afghanistan.[35][N 5] Capability E would have included a Link 16 communications link,[35][39] an auxiliary communications system, and a Tactical Information Exchange Capability (TIEC) system that was planned to by deployed on both the Harrier II and the Tornado GR4.[40] In July 2007, BAE Systems completed the final of seven Harrier GR9 replacement rear fuselages for the MoD. The fuselage components were designed and built as part of a three-year £20 million programme.[41] In July 2008, Qinetiq was awarded a contract to perform upgrades and maintain the Harrier II fleet until 2018, which was the predicted out of service date for the type.[42]
ハリアーIIを最初に受領した飛行隊は、西側諸国に対するソ連の侵略を抑止し、戦争時には地上攻撃を実行するために維持されている常備軍であるドイツ駐留イギリス空軍に拠点を置いていた。ハリアーIIは前身のホーカー・シドレー・ハリアーよりも航続距離と生存性が大幅に向上したため、阻止作戦に新たな重点が置かれた。 [ 43 ] 1990年末までに、ハリアーIIは複数の飛行隊で完全な運用状態に近づいていた。[ 44 ] 1991年の湾岸戦争中、ハリアーIIは配備するには未熟すぎると考えられていた。しかし、1993年以降、数機がイラク上空の飛行禁止区域の哨戒に派遣された。 [ 45 ] 1994年、RAFの第一世代ハリアーの最後の機体が退役し、ハリアーIIがその任務を引き継いだ。[ 15 ]
1995年、ユーゴスラビア崩壊後のクロアチア人とセルビア人の間の敵対行為により、暴力のさらなるエスカレーションを抑止するため、NATO軍が同地域に派遣された。ハリアーIIの飛行隊がイタリアのジョイア・デル・コッレ空軍基地に駐留し、以前に配備されていたRAFのSEPECATジャガーと交代した。[ 46 ]ハリアーは、作戦地域でのGPSナビゲーションを統合するために迅速に改修され、攻撃任務と偵察任務の両方を遂行した。ハリアーIIは126回以上の攻撃出撃を行い、多くの場合、ペイブウェイIIなどのレーザー誘導爆弾の指示役としてジャガー戦闘爆撃機の支援を受けた。[ 47 ]ボスニアは、使用された兵器の大部分が精密誘導兵器であった最初の航空作戦であったと伝えられている。[ 24 ]
1994 年 6 月、新たに導入された GR7 は、海軍のインヴィンシブル級航空母艦に搭載され、試験運用が開始された。運用海軍配備は 1997 年に開始された。[ N 6 ]この能力はすぐに有用であることが証明された。1998 年に、ペルシャ湾に駐留する航空母艦を経由してイラクへの配備が行われた。2000 年に、シエラレオネ上空での「プレゼンス」と偵察飛行は、空母搭載のハリアー GR7 [ 49 ]とイギリス海軍のシーハリアー FA2 [ 50 ]によって実施された。インヴィンシブル級空母は、通信、照明、飛行甲板の変更など、ハリアー II との互換性を高めるための複数の改修も受けた。[ 51 ]
両軍間の協力作戦は、1998年の戦略防衛見直しを受けて設立された統合ハリアー部隊（JFH）指揮組織の下で正式化された。 [ 52 ] JFHの下では、RAFのハリアーIIは、イギリス海軍のシーハリアーと日常的に連携して運用された。[ 53 ] JFHの主要運用基地はRAFコッテスモアであり、組織全体で軍種間の連携が非常に重視された。[ 54 ]統合ハリアー部隊は、将来の遠征作戦と海軍展開の基盤となった。[ 55 ]長期的には、JFHはロッキード・マーティンF-35ライトニングIIの共同運用のパイロット計画としても機能した。[ 56 ]
During Operation Allied Force, the NATO mission over Kosovo in 1999, the RAF contribution included 16 Panavia Tornados and 12 Harrier GR7s.[57] On 27 April 1999, during a mission to attack a Serbian military depot, RAF Harriers came under heavy anti-aircraft fire, but did not suffer losses as a result.[58] In April 1999, the rules of engagement were changed to allow Harriers to use GPS navigation and targeting during medium-altitude bombing missions.[59] A total of 870 Harrier II sorties were carried out during the 78-day bombing campaign.[45] The BBC reported the Harrier II had been achieving 80% direct hit rate during the conflict; a later Parliamentary Select Committee found that 24% of munitions expended in the theatre by all RAF aircraft had been precision weapons.[60][61]
In 2003, the Harrier GR7 played a prominent role during Operation Telic, the UK contribution to the U.S.-led Iraq War.[62] When war broke out, Harriers flew reconnaissance and strike missions inside Southern Iraq, reportedly to destroy Scud missile launchers to prevent their use against neighbouring Kuwait.[63] Prior to the war, the Harriers had been equipped with a new armament, the AGM-65 Maverick missile, which reportedly was a noticeable contribution to the Harrier's operations over Iraq;[64] a total of 38 Mavericks were launched during the campaign.[65]
During the Battle of Basra, a key Iraqi city, Harriers conducted multiple strike missions against Iraqi fuel depots to cripple enemy ground vehicles;[66] other priority targets for the Harriers included tanks, boats, and artillery.[67] According to Nordeen, roughly 30 per cent of all RAF Harrier operations were close air support missions, supporting advancing allied ground troops.[68] In April 2003, the Ministry of Defence admitted that RAF Harriers had deployed controversial RBL755 cluster bombs in Iraq.[69] Both the British and American Harrier squadrons were withdrawn from operations in Iraq during Summer 2003.[70]
RAFのハリアーは、アフガニスタン戦争における英国の貢献の定番要素となるだろう。2004年9月、6機のハリアーGR7がアフガニスタンのカンダハルに配備され、同地域の米軍AV-8B部隊と交代した。[ 71 ] 2005年10月14日、カンダハルの滑走路に駐機していたハリアーGR7Aがタリバンのロケット攻撃により破壊され、もう1機が損傷した。この攻撃で負傷者はおらず、損傷したハリアーは修理され、破壊された機体は交換された。[ 72 ]
アフガニスタンでの初期作戦は威嚇と偵察に重点を置いていたが、ヘルマンド州での作戦中にハリアーIIを使用した阻止任務の需要が劇的に増加した。[ 38 ] 2006年7月から9月にかけて、計画された作戦と地上部隊への近接航空支援のためにイギリスのハリアーが展開した弾薬の総数は179から539に増加し、その大部分はCRV-7ロケット弾であった。[ 73 ]また、ハリアーIIは以前は主に日中に運用されていたが、24時間体制で運用されるようになった。[ 38 ]
2007年1月、ハリアーGR9はNATO国際治安支援部隊（ISAF）の一員としてカンダハルで最初の作戦展開を開始し、ハリアーGR7はより新しいハリアーGR9に置き換えられる形で段階的に退役していった。[ 74 ]アフガニスタンでの5年間の継続的な作戦の後、イギリスの最後のハリアーは2009年6月にアフガニスタン戦域から退役し、8,500回の出撃で22,000時間以上飛行した後、数機のRAFトーネードGR4に置き換えられた。[ 75 ]
2005年、議会で、整備業務がRAFコッテスモアに移管された後、ハリアー機の整備基準と品質が劇的に低下したとの疑惑が浮上した。数機の機体が重大な損傷を受け、1機はミスにより破壊された可能性が高く、整備にかかる時間は100日から155日に増加し、航空機1機あたりのコストも国防航空修理局（DARA）が行っていた以前の取り決めの10倍以上に増加したという。[ 76 ]
2006年、シーハリアーは艦隊航空隊の任務から退役し、ハリアーGR7/9部隊が、かつてこれらの航空機と共有していた任務を担うことになった。旧シーハリアー飛行隊である第800海軍航空飛行隊は、2006年4月に旧RAFのハリアーGR7/9で再編成され、 2007年には再編成された第801海軍航空飛行隊が加わった。 [ 77 ]これらは後に拡大し、海軍打撃航空団となった。[ 78 ] 2010年3月31日、ハリアー運用転換部隊（OCU）である第20RAF飛行隊が解散し、第4飛行隊も解散してRAFウィッタリングで第4（予備）飛行隊として再編成された。[ 79 ]全てのハリアーGR7航空機は2010年7月までに退役した。[ 80 ]
ハリアーGR9は少なくとも2018年まで運用されると予想されていた。しかし、2010年10月19日、戦略防衛・安全保障見直しにおいて、ハリアーは2011年4月までに退役することが発表された。[ 81 ]長期的には、F-35BライトニングII [ 82 ]が海軍の2隻の新型クイーン・エリザベス級航空母艦から運用される予定だった。[ 83 ]ハリアーの退役決定は物議を醸し、一部の上級将校は代替案としてパナビア・トーネードの退役を求めた。この決定により、英国は海軍の航空母艦から飛行できる固定翼機を一切持たなくなった。[ 84 ] [ 85 ]
2010年11月24日、ハリアーは空母からの最後の飛行を行った。これは偶然にも、退役前の空母HMSアーク・ロイヤルからの最後の飛行でもあった。 [ 86 ]艦隊の最後の運用飛行は2010年12月15日に行われ、多数の軍事基地上空を飛行した。[ 87 ] 2011年11月、国防省は72機のハリアーIIをスペアパーツとともに1億1600万ポンド（1億8000万米ドル）でアメリカ海兵隊に売却した。これらの機体はAV-8BハリアーII艦隊の部品供給源として使用される予定である。[ 88 ] [ 89][ 90 ] [ 91 ]
Air Forces Monthlyのレポートによると、72 機のハリアー II のうち一部は再び飛行する予定で、米海兵隊は、退役後に少数の技術者によって保管・整備されていた RAF コッテスモアで検査された機体の整備状態が良好であったため、2 個飛行隊に GR.9/9A モデルを装備する計画を立てていた。[ 88 ]しかし、米海軍航空システム司令部(NAVAIR)は 2012 年 6 月にこれに反論し、米海兵隊は元 RAF のハリアーを運用する計画はなかったと述べた。[ 92 ]
イギリス
ハリアーIIのデータ、V/STOLの検証[ 106 ]
一般的な特徴
Performance
Armament
Avionics GEC-Marconi (Plessey) PVS-2000 Missile approach warning system
Related development
役割、構成、時代が同等の航空機
関連リスト