The more employees are motivated, the more they are stimulated and interested in accepting goals. These success factors are interdependent. For example, the expected outcomes of goals are positively influenced when employees are involved in the goal setting process. Not only does participation increase commitment in attaining the goals that are set, participation influences self-efficacy as well. Additionally, feedback is necessary to monitor one's progress. When feedback is not presented, an employee might think they are not making enough progress. This can reduce self-efficacy and thereby harm the performance outcomes in the long run.[32]
Goal-commitment, the most influential moderator, becomes especially important when dealing with difficult or complex goals. If people lack commitment to goals, they lack motivation to reach them. To commit to a goal, one must believe in its importance or significance.
Attainability: individuals must also believe that they can attain—or at least partially reach—a defined goal. If they think no chance exists of reaching a goal, they may not even try.
Self-efficacy: the higher someone's self-efficacy regarding a certain task, the more likely they will set higher goals, and the more persistence they will show in achieving them.[33]
Workplace training
Goal setting is used to improve training outcomes. For example, Tomokazu Kishiki and colleagues performed a randomized controlled trial on surgical trainees to determine whether or not their participation in a goal-setting program would improve performance and testing scores; the addition of achievable goals appeared to be beneficial to the trainees.[34] When goal setting is applied optimally during training processes, both employee motivation and organizational commitment can increase.[35]
Furthermore, training in goal setting has been linked to higher levels of performance among adults and children with mild to severe intellectual disability.[36]
Work-life balance
Goal setting is also used by some companies with a stated aim of ensuring that employee work life balance is maintained. The idea behind this is that employees set a non-work related goal to improve their well-being, and managers help team members stick to those goals. An example of this in practice is "One Simple Thing", a goal-setting well-being practice employed by Google.[37]
Stretch or extremely hard to reach goals remain a subject of considerable debate with arguments both for and against their use. Among the potential negative side effects of stretch goals include them being dismissed as absurd or ignored by employees. Even if taken seriously, stretch goals can lead to employee burn out attempting to achieve them. Caveats aside, there are some ways that stretch goals can be valuable in spurring creative solutions to problems and new directions especially if used alongside more normal goals and without the need to achieve them but instead measure how much progress was made towards them.[73]
Controversies, responses and resolutions
As a theory developed through induction there have been, and continue to be, circumstances where goal setting theory has been challenged and/or conflicting results have been reported. Specific examples of these controversies and resolutions to them are discussed below.
Assigned goals versus participatively set goals
The question of whether or not participatively set goals are more motivating than supervisor set goals arose due to differences in findings between Erez and her colleagues and those of Latham and colleagues. Erez and her colleagues found evidence that under certain circumstances Latham's earlier conclusion that performance was the same regardless of whether or not goals were set by supervisors or participatively, was wrong. This disagreement was resolved through a process beginning with a conversation between Erez and Latham with Locke as the neutral interlocutor which in turn led to both Erez and Latham jointly designing an experiment to explore the reasons for their disagreement.[93] This collaboration of two researchers with differing views is an early example of adversarial collaboration and led to the following published findings that resolved the disagreement:
Supervisor set goals are equally as motivating if they are accompanied by a reason for the goal.
Participation in goal setting and decision making improves employee performance through increasing self-efficacy and aiding the discovery of suitable task strategies to achieve goals.[64][94]
Possible negative effects of goal setting
A 2009 article, "Goals Gone Wild" by Ordonez et al., sparked controversy by suggesting goal setting might lead to unethical behavior.[62] The authors argued that the benefits of goal setting are often overstated, while its downsides are underreported.[95]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Locke, Edwin A.; Latham, Gary P. (2002). "Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey" . American Psychologist . 57 (9): 705– 717. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.126.9922 . doi : 10.1037/0003-066x.57.9.705 . ISSN 0003-066X . PMID 12237980. S2CID 17534210 .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Locke, Edwin A. ; Latham, Gary P. (2006 年 10 月). 「目標設定理論の新たな方向性」 . Current Directions in Psychological Science . 15 (5): 265–268 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.553.1396 . doi : 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00449.x . hdl : 10818/8239 . S2CID 17856375 .目標設定理論(Locke & Latham、1990、2002)は、産業・組織心理学(I/O心理学)において、約400件の実験室およびフィールド調査に基づき、25年以上にわたって帰納的に発展してきた。これらの研究は、具体的で高い(困難な)目標は、容易な目標や「最善を尽くせ」といった漠然とした抽象的な目標よりも、高いレベルのタスク遂行能力につながることを示した。目標にコミットし、それを達成するために必要な能力を持ち、かつ相反する目標を持っていない限り、目標の難易度とタスク遂行能力の間には正の線形関係が存在する。目標は将来価値ある結果を指すため、目標設定はまず第一に、現状との乖離を生み出すプロセスである。それは、現状への不満と、ある対象や結果を達成したいという欲求を意味する。
↑ Latham, Gary P. (2009). "目標設定による従業員のパフォーマンス向上" . Locke, Edwin A. (編).組織行動の原則ハンドブック:エビデンスに基づくマネジメントに不可欠な知識(第2版). チチェスター(英国)、ホーボーケン(ニュージャージー州):John Wiley & Sons . pp. 161–178 . doi : 10.1002/9781119206422.ch9 . ISBN978-0-470-74095-8. OCLC 317456331 .
↑ Carson, Paula Phillips; Carson, Kerry D.; Heady, Ronald B. (1994). "Cecil Alec Mace: the man who discovered goal-setting". International Journal of Public Administration . 17 (9): 1679–1708 . doi : 10.1080/01900699408524960 .
↑ロック、エドウィン A. (1996年春)。「意識的な目標設定による動機付け」。応用予防心理学。5 ( 2): 117–124。doi : 10.1016/S0962-1849(96) 80005-9 。
1 2ロック、エドウィン A. (2001). 「目標設定による動機づけ」 . ゴレンビエフスキ、ロバート T. (編) 『組織行動ハンドブック(第2版)』. ニューヨーク:マルセル・デッカー. pp. 43–56 . ISBN978-0-8247-0393-6OCLC 44681839。
↑ Swezey, Robert W.; Meltzer, Andrew L.; Salas, Eduardo (1994). 「チームのモチベーションに関わるいくつかの問題」。O'Neil, Harold F.; Drillings, Michael (編) 『モチベーション:理論と研究』。Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates。p . 146。ISBN978-0-8058-1287-9. OCLC 29952231 .
↑ Latham, Gary P.; Budworth, Marie-Hélène (2007). 「20世紀における労働動機の研究」。Koppes, Laura L.; Thayer, Paul W.; Vinchur, Andrew J.; Salas, Eduardo (編)『産業・組織心理学における歴史的展望』応用心理学シリーズ。Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates。pp . 353–382 (366) 。ISBN978-0-8058-4440-5. OCLC 71725282 .
↑ロック、エドウィン A.、レイサム、ゲイリー P. (2009)。「目標設定は暴走しているのか、それともその攻撃者は優れた学問を放棄したのか?」。AoM PRSP。
↑ Hinsz, Verlin B. (2005). "目標設定状況における競争の社会的側面の影響" . Current Psychology . 24 (4): 258– 273. doi : 10.1007/s12144-005-1027-4 . ISSN 0737-8262 . S2CID 145134669 .
↑ Locke, Edwin A.; Shaw, Karyll N.; Saari, Lise M.; Latham, Gary P. (1981). "目標設定と課題遂行:1969–1980". Psychological Bulletin . 90 (1): 125– 152. Bibcode : 1981PsycB..90..125L . doi : 10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.125 .
↑ Winters, Dawn; Latham, Gary P. (1996-06-01). "学習目標と成果目標が単純なタスクと複雑なタスクに与える影響". Group & Organization Management . 21 (2): 236– 250. doi : 10.1177/1059601196212007 . ISSN 1059-6011 . S2CID 144851262 .
↑ Keith, Nina; Frese, Michael (2005年7月) 「エラー管理トレーニングにおける自己制御:パフォーマンス効果の媒介としての感情制御とメタ認知」応用心理学ジャーナル90 (4): 677–691 . doi : 10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.677 . PMID 16060786 .
↑ドアー、ジョン・E. (2018). Measure what matters: how Google, Bono, and the Gates Foundation rock the world with OKRs . Larry Page. New York, New York. ISBN978-0-525-53622-2. OCLC 1016349101 .{{cite book}}: CS1メンテナンス: 場所の発行元が見つかりません (リンク)
↑ Bar-Eli, M.; Tenenbaum, G.; Pie, JS; Btesh, Y.; Almog, A. (1997 年 4 月). 「目標の難易度、目標の特異性、練習時間間隔の長さが筋持久力パフォーマンスに及ぼす影響」. Journal of Sports Sciences . 15 (2): 125– 135. doi : 10.1080/026404197367407 . ISSN 0264-0414 . PMID 9258843 .
↑目標設定理論では、自己効力感を、ある特定の方法で行動したり、特定の目標を達成したりする能力があるという印象と定義するかもしれません。あるいは、自己効力感を、将来の状況に対処するために必要な行動を実行する能力があるという信念と定義することもできます。効力感(効果を生み出す力、つまり本質的には能力と定義される)とは異なり、自己効力感は、その効果を生み出す力があるという信念(正確かどうかは別として)から成ります。例えば、自己効力感の高い人は、病気になったときに健康関連の活動に積極的に取り組むかもしれませんが、自己効力感の低い人は絶望感に陥ってしまうかもしれません。(参照: Sue, David; Sue, Derald Wing; Sue, Stanley; Sue, Diane (2015). Understanding abnormal behavior (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. p. 194. ISBN978-1-305-53760-6。) Note the distinction between self-esteem and self-efficacy. Self-esteem in this context relates to a person's sense of self-worth, whereas self-efficacy relates to a person's perception of their ability to reach a goal. For example, take the case of an incompetent rock-climber. Though probably afflicted with poor self-efficacy in regard to rock climbing, this hypothetical person could retain their self-esteem unaffected.
↑Kishiki, Tomokazu; Lapin, Brittany; Tanaka, Ryota; Francis, Taylor; Hughes, Kathryn; Carbray, JoAnn; Ujiki, Michael B. (October 2016). "Goal setting results in improvement in surgical skills: a randomized controlled trial". Surgery. 160 (4): 1028–1037. doi:10.1016/j.surg.2016.07.022. PMID27531316.
↑Latham, Gary P. (November 2004). "The motivational benefits of goal-setting". Academy of Management Perspectives. 18 (4): 126–129. doi:10.5465/ame.2004.15268727.
↑Copeland, Susan R.; Hughes, Carolyn (March 2002). "Effects of goal setting on task performance of persons with mental retardation". Education & Training in Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities. 37 (1): 40–54. doi:10.1177/215416470203700105. JSTOR23879582.
↑"re:Work - Guide: Care professionally and personally for your team". rework.withgoogle.com. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
↑Shalley, Christina E. (April 1995). "Effects of coaction, expected evaluation, and goal setting on creativity and productivity". Academy of Management Journal. 38 (2): 483–503 (501). JSTOR256689.
↑Morisano, Dominique; Hirsh, Jacob B.; Peterson, Jordan B.; Pihl, Robert O.; Shore, Bruce M. (2010). "Setting, elaborating, and reflecting on personal goals improves academic performance". Journal of Applied Psychology. 95 (2): 255–264. doi:10.1037/a0018478. ISSN1939-1854. PMID20230067.
↑ Fishman Keera N.; Ashbaugh Andrea R.; Swartz Richard H. (2021-02-01). "Goal Setting Improves Cognitive Performance in a Randomized Trial of Chronic Stroke Survivors" . Stroke . 52 (2): 458– 470. doi : 10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.032131 . ISSN 0039-2499 . PMID 33467876 .
↑ Schweitzer, Maurice E.; Ordóñez, Lisa; Douma, Bambi (2004-06-01). "Goal setting as a motivator of unethical behavior" . Academy of Management Journal . 47 (3): 422– 432. ISSN 1948-0989 . JSTOR 20159591 . 2015-10-09 のオリジナルからアーカイブ済み。2013-01-23に取得。[...] 目標が達成されていない人は、最善を尽くそうとしている人よりも非倫理的な行動に走る可能性が高かった。この関係は、経済的インセンティブの有無にかかわらず、目標に当てはまった。また、目標設定と非倫理的な行動の関係は、目標達成にわずかに届かなかった場合に特に強いことがわかった。
↑ Niven, Karen; Healy, Colm (2015-01-21). "目標設定の「暗黒面」への感受性:道徳的正当化は目標が非倫理的行動に及ぼす影響に影響を与えるか?". Journal of Business Ethics . 127 : 115–127 .
1 2 3 Ordóñez, Lisa D.; Schweitzer, Maurice E.; Galinsky, Adam D.; Bazerman, Max H. (2009-02-01). "目標設定の行き過ぎ:目標設定の過剰処方による体系的な副作用" . Academy of Management Perspectives . 23 (1): 6– 16. doi : 10.5465/amp.2009.37007999 . ISSN 1558-9080 .
↑ Welsh, David T.; Baer, Michael D.; Sessions, Hudson; Garud, Niharika (2020). "Motivated to disengage: The ethical consequences of goal commitment and moral disengagement in goal setting" . Journal of Organizational Behavior . 41 (7): 663–677 . doi : 10.1002/job.2467 . hdl : 11343/241454 . ISSN 1099-1379 . S2CID 225646227 .
1 2 3 4 5 Latham, Gary P. (2007). Work motivation: history, theory, research, and practice . Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. pp. 149–150 . ISBN978-1-4416-5408-3OCLC 639015669
1 2 3 Grant, Anthony M. (2012 年 9 月). 「目標に焦点を当てたコーチングの統合モデル: 教育と実践のためのエビデンスに基づくフレームワーク」(PDF) . International Coaching Psychology Review . 7 (2): 146–165 (151). doi : 10.53841/bpsicpr.2012.7.2.146 . S2CID 255938190 . 2014 年 11 月 29 日にオリジナルからアーカイブ済み。学習目標 (習熟目標と呼ばれることもある) は、コーチングを受ける人の注意を、タスク自体の遂行ではなく、タスクの習熟に関連する学習に集中させます。エグゼクティブ コーチングや職場コーチングにおける学習目標の例としては、「自分の専門分野で最高の弁護士になる方法を学ぶ」などが挙げられます。学習目標は、複雑な課題を脅威ではなく前向きな挑戦と捉えること、実際の課題遂行への没頭度の向上(Deci & Ryan, 2002)、記憶力と幸福感の向上(Linnenbrink, Ryan & Pintrich, 1999)など、さまざまな肯定的な認知的および感情的プロセスと関連付けられる傾向があります。さらに、チーム目標が主に学習目標として設定されている場合、非常に複雑または困難な状況でも個人のパフォーマンスが向上し、チームレベルの学習目標の使用はチームメンバー間の協力関係の強化を促進することができます(Kristof-Brown & Stevens, 2001)。学習目標を設定する利点の1つは、学習目標がより高いレベルの内発的動機付けと関連付けられる傾向があり、それがパフォーマンスと関連付けられることです(Sarrazin et al., 2002)。
1 2 Kegan, Robert ; Congleton, Christina; David, Susan A (2013). 「目標の背後にある目標:コーチング事業における成人発達の追求」。David, Susan A; Clutterbuck, David; Megginson, David (編)『目標を超えて:コーチングとメンタリングのための効果的な戦略』所収。ファーナム、サリー:Gower Publishing Limited。pp. 229–244。ISBN978-1-4094-1851-1OCLC 828416668
↑ Hepler, Justin; Albarracin, Dolores; McCulloch, Kathleen C.; Noguchi, Kenji (2012 年 12 月). "Being active and impulsive: the role of goals for action and inaction in self-control" . Motivation and Emotion . 36 (4): 416–424 . doi : 10.1007/s11031-011-9263-4 . PMC 3678776. PMID 23766548 .
↑ Zell, Ethan; Su, Rong; Li, Hong; Ho, Moon-Ho Ringo; Hong, Sungjin; Kumkale, Tarcan; Stauffer, Sarah D.; Zecca, Gregory; Cai, Huajian; Roccas, Sonia (2013 年 9 月) 「行動と不行動に対する態度の文化的差異: 弁証法の役割」 . Social Psychological and Personality Science . 4 (5): 521– 528. doi : 10.1177/1948550612468774 . PMC 6103533 . PMID 30147848 .
↑ Byrne, Ruth MJ; McEleney, Alice (2000年9月) 「行動と行動の失敗に関する反事実的思考」(PDF) . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition . 26 (5): 1318– 1331. doi : 10.1037/0278-7393.26.5.1318 . PMID 11009260 .
↑ Roese, Neal J.; Hur, Taekyun; Pennington, Ginger L. (1999 年 12 月). "反事実的思考と規制焦点: 行動対不行動と十分性対必要性に関する示唆". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 77 (6): 1109– 1120. doi : 10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1109 . PMID 10626366 .
↑ Wilson, Timothy D. ; Reinhard, David A.; Westgate, Erin C.; Gilbert, Daniel T.; Ellerbeck, Nicole; Hahn, Cheryl; Brown, Casey L.; Shaked, Adi (2014年7月)。「ただ考えよう:無関心な心の課題」。Science。345 ( 6192): 75–77。Bibcode : 2014Sci ...345 ... 75W。doi : 10.1126 / science.1250830。PMC 4330241。PMID 24994650。
↑ Latham, Gary P.; Erez, Miriam; Locke, Edwin A. (1988). "Resolving scientific disputes by the joint design of critical experiments by the antagonists: Application to the Erez–Latham dispute regarding participation in goal setting" . Journal of Applied Psychology . 73 (4): 753– 772. doi : 10.1037/0021-9010.73.4.753 . ISSN 1939-1854 .
↑ Locke, Edwin A.; Latham, Gary P.; Erez, Miriam (1988 年 1 月) 「目標コミットメントの決定要因」 Academy of Management Review 13 ( 1): 23– 39. doi : 10.5465/amr.1988.4306771 . ISSN 0363-7425 .
1 2 Locke, Edwin A.; Latham, Gary P. (2009 年 2 月). 「目標設定は暴走しているのか、それともその攻撃者は優れた学術研究を放棄したのか?」 . Academy of Management Perspectives . 23 (1): 17– 23. doi : 10.5465/amp.2009.37008000 . ISSN 1558-9080 .
↑ Ordonez, Lisa D.; Schweitzer, Maurice E.; Galinsky, Adam D.; Bazerman, Max H. (2009). "On Good Scholarship, Goal Setting, and Scholars Gone Wild" . SSRN Electronic Journal . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1382000 . ISSN 1556-5068 . S2CID 233760637 .
↑ベンザー、ジャスティン K.、クリーク、スザンナ K.、モール、デビッド C.、チャーンズ、マーティン P. (2014 年 12 月) 「学習目標は「目標の暴走」を防ぐ可能性がある」「 . American Journal of Public Health . 104 (12): e1. doi : 10.2105/AJPH.2014.302264 . ISSN 0090-0036 . PMC 4232136 . PMID 25320875 .
↑ Lisa D. Ordóñez、Maurice E. Schweitzer、Adam D. Galinsky、および Max H. Bazerman (2009)。「目標設定の過剰処方による体系的な副作用」。Academy of Management Perspectives。Goals gone wild.pdfから取得。