この記事は、中国海南島のライ族(リー族)が話すライ語族の標準化されたハスライ語の文法を説明したものです。品詞は名詞、動詞、形容詞、接続詞、数字、副詞、代名詞です。[1] [2]
導入
ライ族(中国語では黎族)は海南島南部の先住民である。クラ・ダイ族に属する彼らは、少なくとも2,000年から6,000年前にこの地に定住したと考えられており、7,000年から27,000年前にこの島に到達した古代人の遺伝子マーカーを持っている。[3]彼らが話していた先ライ語は後に祖ライ語に進化し、そこから現代のライ語に進化した。
1956年6月、中国政府は海南島のハライ族の言語の研究を実施した。
1983 年の報告書Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究) [4] は、ライ語は 5 つの言語で構成されていると主張しました[明確化が必要] : 侾黎、Gheis 杞黎、Hyuen 本地黎、Moeifou 美孚黎、でいとう加茂黎。教育に関しては、楽東宝有保定村(中国語:乐东抱由镇保定村)のハス(中国語:侾方言罗活土语)のローシュエット方言がリー族の標準語として選ばれた。この言語から「李正書法」(中国語:黎文方案)が開発されました。
1984年9月、中央民族大学と中国社会科学院少数民族研究所の2つの組織がリ語の正書法にいくつかの改訂を加えた。ライ語の正書法は、 『基礎リ語講座』(ピンイン:Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng、中国語:黎語基础教程)と題された教科書の出版によって確定した。 [5]
2019年末、Hlai語辞書が正式にオンライン公開されました(http://www.tunhlai.com)。
音韻論と正書法
子音
ハス・ライ語には31の子音がある。[6] /ȶ/は末尾にのみ現れる。
注:
- /ʔ/はヌルイニシャルである
- /ʔw/と/ʔj/は声門化されている
- ハスフライ語では軟口蓋破裂音は摩擦音形(/k/ > /x/など)で異音化される。
- /f/、/v/は唇歯音、/m/、/b/、/p/、/pʰ/、/pl/は両唇音です。
母音韻
[7] [説明が必要]
トーン
ハス・ライ語には 3 つの声調があります。各声調は、音節が破裂音で終わるか (「主音」) [要説明]、終わらないか (「平音」) [要説明]によって、2 つの形式を取ります。
文法
人類/人物に関連する
- 【baiskaux】: (1) 女性、(2) 妻。夫が自分の妻を呼ぶときにのみ使用します。他人の妻を呼ぶときは失礼な言葉です。
- 【pasmaen】: (1) 男性、(2) 夫、妻が自分の夫を呼ぶときにのみ使用します。他人の夫を呼ぶときは失礼な言葉です。
- 【baisdza】:母親、語り手が使う。子供が自分の母親を呼ぶときは「bais」という言葉を使う。
- 【pasdza】:(1)父親、語り手が使う。子どもが自分の父親を呼ぶときは「pas」という言葉を使う。(2)年配の男性を敬って呼ぶ言い方。
物に関連する
- 【ghang】: 丘、山
- 【名詞】: (1 )水; ( 2 ) 川
- 【laengs】: 海
- 【fei】: (1) n.: 火; (2) v.: 歩く
- 【米】: 米
時間や空間に関連する
- 【hwanneix】: 今日;【uuhaux】: 明日
- 【パイドゥー】: 上;【パイスフー】: 下; 【paiskueng】: 右;【paishluums】: 左
人々
- 漢名(中国語):李氏の中国語名はすべて借用語であり、黄流と呼ばれる地域の海南語から借用されたものである。例:Maeus zek dhongx(中華人民共和国の建国者である毛沢東(毛泽东))。
- Hlai 名: リー族の人々は、通常、自分たちの言語 (Hlai) に由来する名前で子供を呼びます。
グループ/組織/団体
- これらは海南語からの外来語です。たとえば、Dangx Gok Gong Caens Dhaengs (中国共产党)、中国共産党などです。
場所
- これらは海南語からの外来語です。たとえば、Bhakgengs、「北京、北京(中華人民共和国の首都)」。Haeisnaems dhaeus、「海南島、海南岛」;ロクドン、「レドン、乐东(ハスライ族の中心都市)」
国家
- ほとんどは海南語からの借用語です。例: Dangx Gok、「中国」。
- 借用語ではないものはほとんどありません。たとえば、Moei、「漢民族、汉族」などです。 Hlai、「黎族」
これらの名詞はほとんどが外来語です。Hlai 言語は実用的かつ具体的な性質を持つため、無形のものを説明するのには適していません。[要出典]
基本的なルール名詞ライ語[8][9][2]
1. 名詞は通常、数だけで修飾することはできません。名詞を修飾するには、数の後に 適切な助数詞が必要です。
ズー
1つ
ラン
CL
ザックス
蛇
「ヘビ」
ただし、日付に関連付けられた名詞 (年、月、日など) は、数字のみ (助数詞なし) で修飾されます。
「nyaen」という単語が月の名前を指す場合(上記のMayのように)、数は助数詞なしで「nyaen」を修飾できます。ただし、「nyaen」という単語が月の数を指す場合(以下のように)、単語「nyaen」を修飾するには助数詞が必要です。
バ
五
ホーム
CL
ニャーン
月
「5ヶ月」
2. 名詞は副詞で修飾することはできません。また、中国語のように名詞を重複させて「every」の意味を表すこともできません (例: ** uxaeu uxaeu、「man man」、 ** blongs blongs、「house house」)。「every」の意味を表すには、次のように「ranx」という単語に適切な助数詞を付け加えます。
3. ライ語には性変化はありませんが、性別を表す 接頭辞が2つあります。女性は「bais」、男性は「pas」です。例:
- パスジャ、「父」
- baisdza、「母」
- paskai、「雄鶏」(kai : 鶏)
- baiskai、「雌鶏」
- pasdzuengsgong、「セールスマン」(dzuengs : 販売、gong : 物)
- baisdzuengsgong、「セールスウーマン」
「bais」という単語が単独で存在する場合、その意味は母親であり、「pas」は父親を意味します。「Pas」は助詞としても使用できます。例:
くん
言語
緑窓
若者
ハウクス
それらの
ズー
1つ
パス
CL
緩い
食べる
ズー
1つ
ほら。
CL
「若者たちはそれぞれ一つずつ食べました。」
4. ライ語では、英語のように名詞の複数形を表す 接尾辞や接頭辞は使用しません。しかし、ライ語では名詞の複数形を表すために「kun」という単語を使用します。例:
くん
言語
アウザ
老人
リアン
言う/話す/話す
トゥン
言葉
ラエウ
笑う
ドゥース
で
ファウ
下
カイ。
木
「老人たちは木の下で冗談を言っていた。」
「くん」という単語は、数詞と助数詞と一緒に使われ、名詞を修飾することもあります。例:
くん
言語
ハウ
二
ズエン
CL
カウス
姉
フーエク
織る
リアン
スカート
賛美歌。
装飾模様
「二人の姉は装飾模様のスカートを織っていました。」
カイ
木
主題
トゥエン
から
ceeng
花
物体
「木々が咲く(花が咲く)」
ヴィーン
シャツ/トップス
主題
ハウクス
それ
ヴィーンズ
シャツ/トップス
述語
めう。
あなた。SG
「そのシャツ/トップスはあなたのものです。」
6. 名詞は属性になることができ、また属性によって修飾されることもできる。例:
めう
あなた
クワイス
欲しい
オジエップ
学ぶ
カキアス
スクリプト
ヘイ
李
だ?
質問
「Hlai文字を学びたいですか?」
7. 名詞は副詞修飾語になることもできる。例:
トン
トング
ニークス
これ
カイ
木
ヴューク。
する/作る
「この水ギセルは木でできています。」 (トング= 水ギセルなどの喫煙器具)
8. 時間に関する名詞は、動詞を修飾する副詞修飾語になることもあります。例:
ファンネイクス
今日
ファウス
熱い
ダット
とても
見よ!
エンフ
「今日は暑いですね!」
ナ
彼/彼女
ううにゅう
明後日
ヘイ
行く
ゾク
~へ
ダス。
母の母
「彼は明後日おばあちゃんの家に行く予定です。」
ファ
私たちは
ウーパン
昨日
うーるぅぅ。
戻ってくる
「昨日帰ってきました。」
9. 「guu」という単語が従属関係を示すために名詞の前に置かれると、この組み合わせは所有格 句として機能し、文の述語にのみ使用できます。例:
ヴァブヘニー
飛行機
ニークス
これ
ぐぅ
ポス
ドンゴク。
中国
「この飛行機は中国のものです。」
フラウス
二
ラン
CL
デュイス
水牛
ニークス
これ
ぐぅ
ポス
ラウファス。
フーさん
「この2頭の水牛はフーさんのものです。」
[10] [11]
- 【vuek,做】: する、作る…(よく使われる)
- 【怠惰、吃】:(1)食べる、飲む、吸う…;(2)飲み込む(頻繁に使われる)
- 【duuengx,给】: 与える
- 【taeix、打】: 打つ、打つ
- 【bleuu,听】: (1) 聞く; (2) 感じる
- 【dzok,偷】: 盗む
- 【zongs,坐】: 座る
- 【ghais,叫ぶ,请,派】: 誰かに何かをするように言う、招待する...
- 【フェイ、走る】: (1) v.: 歩くこと。 (2) 名: 火災
- 【cuuek,休息】: 休むこと
- 【tuas,欺骗】: だますこと
- 【liengs,看守】: 見守る、守る
- その他
- 【是】: am, is, are (be動詞、文中では省略されることもある)
- 【ghwaix,不是】: 違います、違います、違います
精神活動を表す動詞
- 【dhas,怕】: 恐れる、恐れる
- 【ngop,想念】: もう一度会いたい、懐かしい
- 【oep,爱 】: 愛する、好き
- 【vuuengx,心里烦乱】: 混乱する、無秩序(動詞として使用)
- 【luuemx,忘记】: 忘れること
- 【うえん、埋怨】: 不平を言うこと
- 【tuuenngaen,生气】: 怒る(類義語:kis,kisngaen)
- 【dhaix、忍受】: 耐える、耐える
- その他
存在、変化、発展を表す動詞
- 【dhuus,在】:(1) 動詞: 存在する; (2) 動詞: 中に、上に、に
- 【zaux,有】: 持っている、ある
- 【hlaeux、死】: (1) v.: 死ぬこと。 (2) 名:死亡
- 【hlou,生】: (1) 動詞: 出産する; (2) 形容詞: 生きている、生きている
- 【長い、長い】: (1) 動詞: 成長する; (2) 形容詞: 大きい、大きい
- 【dzauux,变】: 変えること
- その他
- 【gieu,能】: 上手である、できる、できる
- 【gax,不能】: できない、できない
- 【kweis,愿意】: 喜んですること
- 【ais,不愿】: したくないこと
- 【dheeng - hwoek、同意、愿意】: 同意する、喜んで同意する
- 【会,会】: 方法を知っている、できる
- 【boei,不会 】: 方法が分からない、できない
- 【loepp、可以、能够】: 許可される、できる
- 【guulax、必须、应该】: しなければならない、しなければならない
- 【kiemx,必须,应该】: しなければならない、しなければならない(外来語です)
- 【komx,必须,应该】: しなければならない、しなければならない(外来語です)
- 【auux、敢えて】: あえてすること
- その他
- 【buuen,来】: 来る
- 【去,行く】: 行く
- 【beuu,回】: 戻る、戻る
- 【luueng、返す】: 戻る
- 【dhuas,过】: 通り抜ける
- 【かえん,上】: 上がる
- 【luei,下】: 下に行く
- 【hluet,进】: に入る
- 【tuuen,出】: (1) 動詞: 出かける、去る、退出する; (2) 動詞: から
- 【dhaens,到】: 到着する
基本的なルール動詞ライ語[12][11]
A. 進歩的な側面
副詞「faets」または「fietla」は進行中の動作を表すことができ、動詞の前に置かれます。例:
B. 完璧なアスペクト
「 bhaeis 」という単語を含む動詞は、すでに起こった動作を表します。「bhaeis」が動詞の前に置かれると、それは副詞になります。例:
パシュラウス
兄
な
彼/彼女
バエイス
ADVパフォーマンス
ブルー
聞く
ファン
それから
リアン、
言う
「アイス、
アクセント
すっごく
分からない
な
彼/彼女
ぐぅ。
フューチャー
ロムス
まだ/また
カス
または
だ?」
ない
「彼の兄弟はそれを聞いて、「ああ、彼がまだそんなことをするのか(それとも)しないのか分からない?」と言いました。」他还要这样不?" )
「bhaeis」という単語が動詞の後に置かれると、補語として機能し、「終わった」という意味になります。例:
「dhuas」という単語は完了相を表すこともできます(「(1)動詞:通り抜ける、(2)動作がすでに起こったことを示す助動詞で、動詞の後に置かれる、(3)比較を表す助動詞で、形容詞の後に置かれる」)。例:
C. 将来的な側面
助動詞「kweis」または「guu」は、動詞の前に置かれることで、動作が未来であることを示します。例:
「 kweis」と「guu 」という2つの単語のニュアンスは次のようになります。2つの動詞が一緒に使用される場合、最初の動詞が2番目の動詞の方法である場合、または2番目の動詞が最初の動詞の目的である場合、「guu」という単語のみが2番目の動詞の前に置かれます。例:
D. その他
動作が短時間しか続かない場合は、副詞「zuufanx」が動詞の後に置かれます。例:
2. Hlai動詞は、動作動詞、精神活動を表す動詞、存在、変化、発展を表す動詞など、文中で述語または述語ヘッドになることができます。これらの動詞のほとんどは、目的語または補語が後に続くことができ、副詞、時を表す名詞、助動詞によって修飾されることができます。例:
名詞動詞は、目的語が続くと動詞として機能する。名詞動詞と目的語は、主語、目的語、名詞述語として機能する。例:
4. 中国語のように、Hlai動詞が二重になることはめったにありません。二重になるのは、単音節の動作動詞と精神活動を表す動詞だけです。二重単音節の動詞は、行為が何気なく、不注意に行われたことを暗示します。例:
くん
言語
ルークエン
若い女の子
ズエイス
見て
ズエイス
見て
ファン
それから
フェイ
歩く
フルエット
入る
ブロンズ。
家
「女の子たちはちょっとだけ見てから家に入っていきました。」 (中国語:姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了)
「 laeis 」が続く動詞は「試みる」という意味になります。動詞の後に目的語が続く場合は、「laeis」という単語を目的語の後に置く必要があります。例:
5. 助動詞通常、文の述語となる動詞の前に置かれ、1) 行為を行う者の能力、または 2) 行為の可能性、義務、または必要性を表します。例:
助動詞の後に名詞目的語を付けることはできません。また、助動詞を重複して使うこともできません。ただし、疑問文では肯定と否定の助動詞を使って「はい」か「いいえ」を尋ねます。例:
助動詞は、質問に答える場合にのみ、述語として単独で機能することができます。ただし、助動詞「kiemx」、「guulax」、および単語「guu」は述語として機能しません。例:
助動詞には目的語が続くこともあります。例:
助動詞「kweis 」の反意語は「ais 」であり、「 kueng」の反意語は「 hluums」であり、「gieu」の反意語は「gax 」であり、これらは命令法では使用できません。
また、動作の方向を表す動詞は主動詞の後に続き、述語を形成する。例:
また、以下の表に示すように、 移動の動詞は組み合わさって複合語になることもあります。
上記の複合語の後に目的語が続くこともあります。例:
「 luueng 」という単語を除いて、表の最初の列にある単語(「dhuas」、「kaen」、「luei」、「hluet」、「tuuen」、「beuu」)と最上段にある単語(「buuen」、「hei」、「beuu」)は位置を交換することができます。位置を交換した後、複合語の後に目的語が続くことはできず、通常は命令法で使用されます。
連結動詞は省略できる。例:
しかし、主語や述語が長すぎる場合や述語に数字が含まれる場合は、接続動詞を省略することはできません。例:
連結動詞は、時制を示す単語(「faets」や「bhaeis」や「dhuas」など)と一緒に使用することはできず、方向を示す動詞や補語と一緒に使用することも、副詞によって修飾したり重複したりすることもできません。
8.サフィックス「toengs」がいくつかの動詞に付加されると、複合語は相互動詞となり、その後に目的語が続くことはできなくなります。例:
9. ライ語の一部の単語は名詞でもあり動詞でもあります。例:
中国語と英語では、「着ける」という動詞は、ネックレスをつける、帽子をかぶる、イヤリングをつけるなど、さまざまな動作に当てはまります。しかし、ライ語では、これらのさまざまな動作は異なる動詞で区別されます。例:
- 「着る」
- kienx(ネックレスをつけるため)
- mieng(イヤリングをつける)
- ngwaus(帽子をかぶる)
- pien(スカート、ズボン、靴を着用する)
- 猫(トップス、シャツを着る場合)
- "ノイズ"
- roeng(昆虫または鳥から)
- vuns(犬から)
- ひょうえん(鶏から)
- ngwaety(人間から)
[13] [14]
人や物の特徴を説明する
- 【hleny,好】: 良い
- 【悪臭、 坏 】: 悪い、良くない
- 【kaeix,冷】: 寒い
- 【fous /ファウス,热】:熱い
- 【dza,老】: 古い
- 【ブルーク、年轻】: 若い
- 【hloek,深】: 深い
- 【tuuens,浅】: 浅い
- その他
物の形や属性を説明する
- 【長い、大きい】: 大きい、大きい
- 【enyx,小】: 小さい
- 【peek,高い】: 高い、高い
- 【タウウス,矮 】: 短い
- 【daeus,長】: 長い
- 【taty,短い】: 短い
- その他
行動や感情の状態を説明する
- 【dzuuns,快】: 速い
- 【dais,慢】: 遅い
- 【hluengs,松】: 緩い
- 【guung,紧 】: きつい
- 【hlenyfaty,快乐】: 幸せです
- 【容易,簡単 】: easy
- その他
ライ語の形容詞の基本ルール[15][9][14]
A. として述語
形容詞は主語の後に来ます。例:
ズー オム コエム ハウ ロング バイシアス。
非常に大きい果物の分類子
「那一个果子很大,その果物は(大きいです)!」
とにかく、最大限の悪臭を放ちます。
分類器の男/人が1人悪い
「那一个人坏、あの男は悪い/悪名高い。」
B. として属性
形容詞は修飾される名詞の後に来ます。例:
ドホップキエウ
布 青/緑
「蓝布、青い布」
ヴェーングス・パエンス
シャツ/トップス カラフル
「花衣服,(a) 派手な(目立つ色の)シャツ」
楽しい長い
大雨
「大雨、激しい雨」
ホーエニックス
山 小さい
「小山,(a) 小さな山/丘」
ブロンズピーク
家が高い
「高房子」
ありがとう
花は良い
「好花、きれいな花」
C. として副詞的
形容詞は動詞の前に置かれます。例:
Meuu dais dais lax as です。
ゆっくりゆっくりアクセントを食べます
「你ゆっくり地吃吧!(あなたは)ゆっくり食べてください。」
ナカウスペイスフェイ。
彼/彼女は素早い行動で歩く
「他急いで地走った,彼は急いで歩きました。」
D. として補体
形容詞は通常、文中で動詞の後に来ます。例:
ナ・ヴューク・リーク・ヘヴン。
彼/彼女はアクセントが悪い
「他弄坏了,彼は(それを)壊してしまった。」
私の弟は誰ですか?
あなたはすでに質問のマーカーをよく耕しています
「你已经犁好了吗?耕しは終わりましたか?」
2. 形容詞は副詞によって修飾されることもあり、副詞は形容詞の前または後に置くことができます。例:
ダ・ヘレニー
良くない
「良くない」
覗いてみる
背が高くない
「不高くない」
臭い
最も悪い
「最悪、最悪」
二重の
最も美しい
「最も美しい」
パンス ダットダット
カラフル/花柄 本当に
「很花、とてもカラフル」
ヘレニファティ・バイシアス
とても幸せ
「とても幸せです」
A. 比較的程度
「dhuas」または「bhi」はどちらも比較級を表します。前者はHlai語で、後者は外来語です。「dhuas」という単語を使用する場合は、形容詞の後に配置し、形容詞と「dhuas」は比較する2つのオブジェクトの間に置く必要があります。例:
Baisdza ピーク dhuas hluuekbaiskaux。
母親は娘より背が高い
「母亲高过女儿,母親は娘より背が高いです。」
長い間、私たちは苦しみ続けてきました。
カボチャより大きい冬瓜
「冬瓜大过南瓜,その白いひょうたんは彼女のかぼちゃより大きいです。」
外来語「bhi」が使用される場合、それは比較される2つのオブジェクトの間に置かれ、形容詞は後者のオブジェクトの後に置かれます。例:
メウビは覗いてみた。
あなたは私を背が高いと比べる
「你比我高,あなたは私(午前)より背が高いです。」
ブロングス・デス・ビ・ブロングス・ナ・レニー。
私の家と彼の家を比較すると良い
「我的房子より他的房子好,私の家は彼の家よりも優れています。」
B. 最高の程度
「vaeu」または「duix」はどちらも最上級を表します。前者はHlai語で、後者は外来語です。「vaeu」または「duix」を使用する場合は、形容詞の前に置く必要があります。例:
パシュラウス・ヴァウ・ギエウ。
最も有能な兄
「哥哥最能干,兄が最も有能です。」
すぐに返信します。
末娘が一番美しい
「幺妹最漂亮,末の娘は最も美しいです。」
私の Hlai 言語コンサルタントの Liu 氏によると、「 veauという単語は軽蔑的、誇張的、または大げさな表現を意味する可能性があります。」それは文脈によって異なります。
C. その他
「Zuugit」は比較級や最上級を表すのではなく、「(ほんの少し)」を表します。例:
Zuu kuuengx cai neix ピーク ズギット。
分類器ツリーはこれくらいの高さです
「这棵树高点,この 3 つはほんの少し背が高いです。」
ヴェングスはもう来ていない。
シャツ/トップスこの新しい少し
「这衣服新しい一点,このドレスはほんの少しだけ新しいです。」
うーん、それはちょっと違う。
良いものは、これは所有物のメーカーです
「これは良いものです、この良いものはあなたのものです。」
ナ・キエン・デュー・ウー・ダエウス。
彼/彼女は長い方を選びたい
「他想拿长的,彼は長いものを取りたいと思っています。」
カイ ウーロン ハウマン グー デス。
チキンは私を所有する大きなものです
「那只大的鸡是我的,その大きな鶏は私のものです。」
5. 物の形や属性、行動や感情の状態を表す形容詞は重複して使うことができますが、形容詞は単音節でなければなりません。形容詞が重複すると、形容詞の程度が増します。例:
ヴェーンズ カウ カウ
シャツ/トップス ホワイト ホワイト
「白白の衣服、白い服」
良い一日を
早く早く来い
「快快来、早く来なさい」
dais dais fei
ゆっくりゆっくり歩く
「ゆっくり走、ゆっくり歩きなさい」(Hlaiの人々が別れを告げるときに「dais dais fei」と言い合うフレーズです。)
2つの異なる形容詞をAABBのように重ねて使うこともできます。例:
ブロンス・デ・ス・バーン・ベーン・ヘニー・フレニー。
私の新しい、新しい、良い家。
「我的房子又新又好,私の家は新しくて良いです。」
ずっと長い間、ずっと覗いていたい。
一つの分類子の山は、この高い高い大きな大きな
「这一座山又高又大,この山は高くて大きいです。」
2つの異なる形容詞をABABパターンに配置することもできます。例:
グエン・ネックス・ピーク・タウス・ピーク・タウス。
道はこの高い短い高い短い
「这条路高高低低,この道はでこぼこしています。」
ナフェイはウティウティから出た。
彼/彼女は歩く、ぶらぶら、ぶらぶら、ぶらぶら
「他踉踉跄跄地走着,彼はほろ酔いで歩いています(酔っぱらいのようにふらふらしています)」
ズー・ダンクス・グエン・ネイクス・ムエティ・トーエイ・ムエティ・トーエイ。
1つの分類道路このまっすぐな平坦なまっすぐな平坦な
「这一条路平平直直,この道はまっすぐで滑らかです。」
また、単音節形容詞の中には、形容詞の最初の子音と「i」や「u」などの母音を組み合わせた接頭辞を付加することで程度の増加を表すものもあり、接頭辞の音調は最初の音調になります。例:
li- loek
接頭辞ダーク
「真っ暗」
リ・ラエ
接頭辞スパース
「希疏、まばら」
グーグー
接頭辞凹面
「黑漆、凹凸だらけ、穴だらけ」
グーガウ
プレフィックスクリア
「清澈」
6. 形容詞の中には、単独では存在できない重複した接尾辞を末尾に付けることで、説明を強調するものもあります。例:
カエウ・レップレープ
白いものは明るく見える
「亮晶晶、何かが明るくなるほど白い」
見る
黒い何かが暗く見える
「黒漆漆、何かが暗くなるほど黒い」
税金 おかしい
ご飯 熱い 何か熱そうに見える
「饭熱乎乎、熱いご飯」
7. 「enyx」という単語は小さいものを表すときに使われ、名詞の前または後に置かれます。どちらの場合も後者の単語に重点が置かれます。例:
「長い」という単語は、何か大きいものや巨大なものを表すときに使われ、名詞の前または後に置くことができます。どちらの場合も、前者の単語に重点が置かれます。例:
何か大きいものや巨大なものを表現する別の方法は、物や物に関連する名詞に接頭辞「bais- 」を追加することです。しかし、人や人々に関連する名詞に接頭辞「bais-」を追加すると、性別を示すものになります。例:
接頭辞「bais-」が付加された名詞は、「long」という単語で修飾されて程度が増すことがあります。例:
バイスクエンツァイロング、
大きな木 大きな
「非常に大きな树、大きな木」
バイス・チェン・ロン、
大きな石 大きな
「很大的石头、大きな石」
話者が程度を上げたい場合には、「dhat」または「dhatdhat」という単語を追加することができます。
[16] [17]
基数、序数、近似数を含む Hlai 言語の数は、通常、文の中で主語、述語、または目的語として機能します。数が分類子と一緒に使用される場合、それらは一緒に名詞句を修飾する属性になることができる句になります。
基本的な数値単位
- 【ceuus / zeuus / zuu,一】: 1(場合によっては、「lax」という単語が数字の「1」を意味することもあります)
- 【hlaus,二】: two
- 【fu,三】: three
- 【caus,四】: 四
- 【ば、五】: 五
- 【dom,六】: 六
- 【トウ,七】: seven
- 【八】: 8
- 【フォウス,九】: nine
- 【fuet,十】: ten
- 【ghwaen,百】: 百
- 【千,千】: 千
- 【vaens,万】: 万
基本的な数字と単位の組み合わせ
- 【fuet ceuus,十一】: イレブン
- 【フエット ・フラウス、十二】: 12
- 【フラウス・ フエット,二十】: 20
- 【fus fuet ba,三十五】: 35
- 【lax ghwaen hlaus fuet,一百二十】: 百二十
- 【caus nguen uengx ceuus,四千零一】: フォー・サウザンド・ゼロ・ワン (4,001)
- 【zuu vaens,一万】: 万
C. 基数は通常、名詞を修飾することはできませんが、分類器助動詞の後に続く名詞を修飾する。例:
ズー
1つ
ラン
CLF
カイ
チキン
「鶏一羽」
フート
10 十
ズエン
CLF
エーユー
人/男性
「10人」
ハウ
二
グエン
千
クエンクス
CLF
カイ
木
「二千本の木」
ただし、日付(年、月、日など)に関しては、数字は助数詞なしでこれらの種類の名詞を修飾できます。
メウダ
あなた
ドエングス
ライブ
ドゥース
で
バクゲン
北京
ズー
1つ
ブー
年
ヘイ
合格
見よ。
アクセント
「あなたは北京に1年間住んでいます。」
ナ
彼
ハウ
二
ファン
日
ダ
ない
ケーン
上がる
どうか
山
オタク
検索
銃
薪
見よ。
アクセント
「ここ二日間、彼は薪を探しに山へ行っていません。」
D. 基数は、"グエン" そして "ヴァエンス「; パターンがAABBで、結果として得られるフレーズが大量の数を意味する場合、例:
ゾー
持っている
グエン
千
グエン
千
ヴァエンス
万
ヴァエンス
万
エーユー
男
よかった。
来る
「何千人もの人が来ます。」
グエン
千
グエン
千
ヴァエンス
万
ヴァエンス
万
エーユー
男
ンガン
また/すべて
キエン
欲望
ヘイ
行く
バクゲンズ。
北京。
「何千人もの人々が北京に行きたがっている。」
時には、「 nguen」と「vaens 」という単語が「jieng」または「zuu」と組み合わされて名詞を修飾するABAC句を形成し、意味がAABBパターンと同義になることがあります。例:
ゾー
持っている
ジエン
形状
グエン
千
ジエン
形状
ヴァエンス
万
エーユー
男
おい。
行く
「何千人もの人が行きます。」
ズー
1つ
グエン
千
ズー
1つ
ヴァエンス
万
エーユー
男
ンガン
全て
キエン
欲望
ファス
空
楽しい。
雨
「何千人もの人々が雨を楽しみにしています。」
E. 4つの単語があります(「ズー"、"ceuus/zeuus"、 そして "緩い「1」の位の値を表すことができる「1」という単語がいくつかありますが、それぞれの単語には独自の使い方があります。
まず、Hlai の人々が数を数えるときは、「 ceuus/zeuus、hlaus、fus、caus …(1、2、3、4…)」と言い、1 を表すのに「 zuu」や「lax」は使いません。
「 zuu 」という単語は、名詞を修飾するために助数詞と一緒に使用する必要があります。
ズー
1つ
ラン
CLF
デュイス
水牛
「水牛一頭」
数字の1が100、1,000、10,000、100,000...の位にある場合、1の代わりに「zuu」という単語を使用する必要があります。例:
ズー
1つ
グァエン
百
「100」
ズー
1つ
グエン
千
「1000」
ズー
1つ
ヴァエンス
万
"万"
数字の10の位または1の位にある数字1には、「ceuus/zeuus」という単語を使用する必要があります。例:
フート
10 十
ceuus/zeuus
1つ
「11」
ズー
1つ
グァエン
百
ceuus/zeuus
1つ
フート
10 十
「110」
ズー
1つ
ヴァエンス
1000
ズー
1つ
グエン
千
ceuus/zeuus
1つ
フート
10 十
ceuus/zeuus
1つ
「11,011」
ズー
1つ
グァエン
百
uengx
そして
ceuus/zeuus
1つ
「101」
ただし、数字を助数詞とともに使用する場合は、「zuu」という単語を使用する必要があります。例:
ズー
1つ
グエン
千
uengx
そして
ズー
1つ
ホーム
CLF
「千と一(物)」
「 lax 」という単語は助数詞と一緒に使用できません。「lax」という単語は、数字が 10 より大きい場合の最初の桁にのみ使用できます。ただし、数字が 100、1000、10000... などの 10 の倍数の場合は、 「 lax 」ではなく「 zuu 」という単語を使用する必要があります。例:
緩い
1つ
フート
10 十
ceuus/zeuus
1つ
(=
=
フート
10 十
ceuus/zeuus)
1つ
「11」
緩い
1つ
グァエン
百
ceuus/zeuus
1つ
フート
10 十
ceuus/zeuus
1つ
「111」
緩い
1つ
グエン
千
ドム
六
グァエン
百
(=
=
ズー
1つ
グエン
千
ドム
六
グァエン
百
「1600」
F. 2つの単語があります(「フート" そして "パン「十」の位を表すのに使われる「十」という数え方がありますが、それぞれの単語に用法があります。
まず、数を数えるときに十の数字を表すのに 「 fuet 」を使います。
「bun」は名詞を修飾するのに助数詞を伴う必要はありません。しかし、「bun」という単語が名詞を修飾するのに助数詞を伴う場合、使用できる助数詞は「hom」と「 lang 」の 2 つだけです。ただし、「 lang 」が人に対して使用される場合、「bun」は使用できません。
ハウ
二
パン
10 十
ホーム
CLF
ガン
お金
(=
=
ハウ
二
パン
10 十
ガン)
お金
「20ドル」
フス
三つ
パン
10 十
ラン
CLF
カイ
チキン
(=
=
フス
三つ
パン
10 十
カイ)
チキン
「30羽の鶏」
「Fuet」は名詞を修飾するために分類詞と一緒に使用する必要があります。例:
フート
10 十
ラン
CLF
デュイス
水牛
「水牛10頭」
しかし、「fuet」は名詞の前に置くことができ、名詞も分類詞です。例:
バ
五
フート
10 十
ブー
CLF /年
「50年」
フス
三つ
フート
10 十
ワウ
CLF /ボウル
「30杯」
ゼロ
ライ語には数字の「ゼロ」を表す言葉はなく、一部の地域では外来語の「lengs(零、ゼロ)」が採用されています。例:
ズー
1つ
グァエン
百
レンズ
ゼロ
バ
五
「105」
ただし、数字「ゼロ」は接続詞「uengx」または「loms」で表すことができます。例:
ズー
1つ
グァエン
百
uengx
そして
ハウ
二
(ホン)
(CLF)
「102」
フス
三つ
グエン
千
ロムス
また
ハウ
二
フート
10 十
(ホン)
(CLF)
「三千二十(3020)」
H. ライ語では、数字を構成する2つのルールがある。
(1)1から9までの任意の数字が「fuet」、「ghwaen」、「nguen」、「vaens」の後に置かれる場合、その数字と単語の関係は加算である。例:
10 十
1つ
「11」
10 十
二
「12」
(2)1から9までの任意の数字が「fuet」、「ghwaen」、「nguen」、「vaens」の前に置かれる場合、その数字と単語の関係は乗算である。例:
三つ
10 十
「30」
二
百
「二百」
A. ライ語では、「 ghwous」(头、頭)または「ceuus」(一、one)という言葉は「最初」を意味し、「 cuty 」(尾、しっぽ)という言葉は「最後」を意味します。最初と最後の間にあるすべての数字には、「 tom 」(中間の)という言葉が使用されます。
フルーク・グース・グワ
子供が植物に向かう
「老大(长子)、最初に生まれた子供(通常は「息子」を意味します)」
ヒューク・トム
子供 真ん中
「老二、老三…、真ん中の子」
ヒューク・カティ
子尻尾
「老幺、末っ子」
性別が必要な場合は、「pasmaen」(男人、男性)または「baiskaux」(女人、女性)という単語を追加します。例:
hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
子供の男の頭が植物に当たる = 子供の頭が植物に当たる
「長子、最初に生まれた息子」
hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-baiskaux-long
子供女性の頭を植える = 子供女性が大きい
「大女儿、長女」
通常、「ghwous」は最年長の男性、「long」は最年長の女性を表します。たとえば、「kauuslong」(大姐、最年長の姉妹)、「zoulong」(大嫂、最年長の兄弟の妻)などです。
さらに、「 tom」や「cuty 」という単語に接頭辞「pas -」(男性)や「bais -」(女性)を付けて性別を表すこともできます。例:
パストム
男性接頭辞ミドル
「次子」
ベイス-かわいい
女性接頭辞尾
「末娘」
物事に序数が適用される場合、通常、フレーズは「ghwous」+「zuu」+最初のものを表す適切な助数詞で構成されます。例:
グース ズー クエンクス
ツリーのヘッド 1 分類子
「头一棵、最初の(木)」
最後の例を挙げると、通常このフレーズは「 baiscuty」+「zuu 」+適切な助数詞という単語で構成されます。例:
バスクティ・ズウ・ホム
最後尾の分類子
「最後の一个、最後(一)」
中間のものを表すために、通常、フレーズは「baistom」+「zuu」+適切な助数詞という単語で構成されます。例:
ベイストム・ズー・ラン
中間の分類子
「二番目、あるいは三番目…、二番目、あるいは三番目…」
序数による数え方
通常、コミュニケーションの正確さは中国語からの借用語によって実現されます。例:
- 【dhoeis - iet,第一】: 最初
- 【dhoeis-dzis、第二】: 2番目
- 【dhoeis-das、第三 】: 3番目
- 【dhoeis-dis、第四】: 4番目
- 【dhoeis-ngau、第五】: 5番目
- 【dhoeis-laekk、第六】: 6 番目
- 【dhoeis-qiet、第七】: 7番目
- 【dhoeis-bhoeix,第八】: 8 番目
- 【dhoeis-gaeus、第九】: 9番目
- 【dhoeis-dapp,第十】: 10番目
dhoeis-iet dus
最初のグループ
「第一組」
dhoeis-bhoeix dhuix
第8チーム
「第八队」
ドエイス・ジス・ベンクス
二等
「第二班、二等」
C. 年、月、日、時間の経過を数えるため
ライ文化では、人々は中国の十二支に似た方法で年や日を数えます。例えば、
- 年
- 【boux-diu,鼠年】:ネズミの年
- 【牛年】:水牛の年
- 【boux-cauus,魚年】:魚の年
- 【兔年】:うさぎ年
- 【boux-dang,龙年】: 辰年
- 【虫年】:虫の年
- 【丑年】:馬年
- 【人年】:男の年
- 【申年 ( さるねん ) 】
- 【boux-kai、鸡年】:鶏の年
- 【戌年】:戌年
- 【猪年】:豚の年
- 日
- 【鼠日】:鼠の日
- 【牛の日】:水牛の日
- 【魚の日】:魚の日
- 【兔日】:うさぎの日
- 【黄龍の日 】: 龍の日
- 【虫の日 】: 虫の日
- 【午の日 (うまの日) 】
- 【hwan-mat、人日】: 人の日
- 【猴日】:申の日
- 【鸡日】:鶏の日
- 【戌の日】:犬の日
- 【猪日】:豚の日
ライ文化では、月を数えるために2種類の暦があります。1つは漢の太陽暦に従うもので、例えば、
- 【ずーにゃえんばえん、一月、正月】:1月
- 【フラウスニャエン、二月】: 2月
- 【ふすにゃえん、三月】:3月
- 【caus-nyaen,4月】:4月
- 【バーニャエン、五月】:5月
- 【ドムニャエン、六月】:6月
- 【とうにゃえん、七月】:7月
- 【グーニャエン,8月 】:8月
- 【ファウスニャエン、9月】:9月
- 【フエットニャエン,10月】:10月
- 【フエセウスニャエン,11月】:11月
- 【fuethlaus-nyaen、12月、腊月】: 12月
もう一つは漢の太陰暦に従うもので、例えば、
- 【zuu-hwan-nyaen、初一】: 旧暦の月の最初の日
- 【hlaus-hwan-nyaen,初二】: 旧暦の 2 日
- 【fus-hwan-nyaen、初三】: 旧暦の 3 日
- 【初四】:太陰月の4日目
- ..........
- 【fueteuus-hwan,十一日】: 旧暦の 11 日
- 【fueteuus-hwan,十二日 】: 旧暦の 12 日
- ..........
- 【hlausfuetceuus-hwan、二十一日】: 旧暦の 21 日
- 【fusfuet-hwan,三十日】: 旧暦の 30 日
近似値の数
A. ライ語では、おおよその数を表す方法の1つとして、2つまたは3つの連続した数字を並べることがあります。例:
ハウエス・フス(ホム)
2 3 (分類子)
「两三(个)、二、三」
バ・ドム(ホム)
5 6。(助数詞)
「五六(个)、五か六」
原因は何か
2、3、4(助数詞)
「二三四(个)、二、三、または四」
トゥ・グー・ファウス(ホム)
七八九(助数詞)
「七八九(个)、seven、eight、or nine」
通常、数字の 1 と 2 は組み合わせられません。
B. おおよその数値を表す別の方法は、「ジャエンスロープ" (大约/大概、おそらく)、例:
ザンスロップ・ゾー・フエト・ドム・オム
おそらく106分類器がある
「大概有十六个、おそらく十六(一)あるだろう」
ザンスロップ・ザウ・フラウス・フエ・ブー・ヘ
おそらく10歳のアクセントが2つある
「大概有二十岁、約二十歳」
「dzaengsloepp」という単語は「loepp」と短縮することもできます。例:
ロエップ ゾー トゥー フエット セウス クーエンクス
おそらく木には7つの101の分類子がある
「大约有七十一棵、おそらく七十一本(木)があるでしょう」
C. おおよその数値を表す別の方法は、「ジャ「(余剰、余剰/より多い)」、例:
こんにちは
2つの余剰分類器
「两个多、二人以上(三人未満)」
フット ダ ボウ
10年の余剰
「十多年、十年以上(二十年未満)」
「dza」という単語は、「loepp」と組み合わせて近似値を表すこともできます。構文は「loepp」+ 「zaux」+「数字」+「dza」です。例:
ナ・ロエップ・ザ・フエット・ザ・ブー・ダ・ブエン・ヘ。
彼はおそらく10年の余剰年数を持っていないアクセント
「他大约有十余年没来了,彼は10年以上(この場所に)来ていません。」
この構文では「zaux」という単語は省略できる。例:
ネックス・ロエップ・フエト・ザ・ジンズとしてズー・オム。
1つの分類器スイカこれはおそらく10の余剰分類器、約500g
「这个西瓜大约有十多斤,このスイカは 10 ジンより少し多いです。」
D. 「ズーギット"、"ズーギットギット"、"ズーギトラエイ「」は、おおよその数値を表すために使用できます。これらの単語は、小さな量の不確実性を示します。例:
ナウス・ラックス・ツーギット・ヴィ!
彼はほんの少しだけ食べるアクセント
「他才吃一点点,彼は少ししか食べませんでした。)」
どうかご自由に。
少しだけ
「我有一点点,少しあります。)」
ビンクス・ズーギトラエ
少し欠けている
「缺了一点、少し足りない。」
「一部分」という単語は、与えられた量の不確実性を表します。例:
ずっと良い
行く者も来る者も
「一部(人)去、一部(人)来、一部の(人)が行き、一部の(人)が来ます。」
ペム・ナ・ドゥース・ズートム・グエン
途中で彼に会う
「半路上碰见他、途中で彼に会いましょう」
「zuutom」という単語は「半分」を意味することもあります。例:
ズー・パス・ズートム
男性半分の分類子1つ
「一人一半、それぞれ半分」
与えられた量の不確実性を表す別の単語は「gei」(几、若干、いくつか)で、これは量が10未満であることを意味します。例:
ゲイファンネイクス
数日後に
「このごろ、このごろ」
Mansnyoengx zaaux ge zuen aeu buuen。
分類器の人が数人来るだけで
「只有几个人来,ほんの数人しか来ません(10人未満)」
E. 「hloei」(多、多くの)という単語は、不確かな大きな量を表すことができます。量がさらに多い場合は、この単語「hloei」が繰り返され、「hloeihloei」になります。例:
Bhous na hauux hloei duis dhat。
村彼は多くの水牛が非常に
「他那个村牛很多,彼の村にはたくさんの水牛がいます。」
Dhuix fa neix zaaux uxaeu hloeihloei。
チームにはたくさんの人がいる
「我们这个队有许多人,このチームには非常に多くの人がいます。」
ある程度の金額を要求される場合、「hloeiras」(多少、どのくらい)という単語を疑問文で使うことができます。例:
私のお気に入りの本は何ですか?
あなたは今年何年
「你今年多大岁数?今年何歳ですか?」
どうですか?
あなたには妹や弟が何人いますか?
「你有何个弟妹妹?あなたには何人の弟と妹がいますか?」
[18] [19] [20]
1. 名詞を修飾する分類子
A. 一般的な分類子
• 【本、个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶...】: 最も頻繁に使用され、無生物(果物、月、物語、建物、花、お金など)と一緒に使用されます。 、山、ライトスタンド、帽子...)、例:
ズー ホム ワウ
分類ボウル1個
「一碗、ボウル。」
• 【zuen,位】: 人間に対してのみ使われます。例:
こんにちは
2つの分類子兵士
「二人の士兵」
• 【laus,个、位】: 赤ちゃん、子供、男の子、若い男性など、男性に対してのみ使用されます。例:
ズー・ラウス・ホールク
1 つの分類子
「一人の男の子」
• 【haus,个,位】: 赤ちゃん、子供、女の子、若い女性など、女性に対してのみ使用されます。例:
家を買う
2つの分類子の子
「二人の女孩」
• 【lang,只】:人間、生物、霊的存在に対して使用できます。例:
フス・ラン・カイ
3つの分類子チキン
「三只鶏」
• 【kuuengx,棵】: 大きな植物に使われます(花には「hom」が使われます)。例:
caus kuuengx cai
4つの分類ツリー
「四棵树」
• 【扇子】:シャツやブラウスと一緒に使われます。例:
ba ファン veengs
5つの分類子のシャツ/トップス
「五件衣裳、シャツまたはブラウスが5枚」
• 【hyax、条、件】: ズボンと一緒に使われます。例:
こんにちは
2つの分類パンツ
「两条裤子、パンツ二枚」
• 【ruet,条】:スカートと一緒に使われます。例:
zuu ruet riens
伝統的なHlaiスカートの分類子
「一条筒裙」
• 【tos,套】:衣服や衣装と一緒に使われます。例:
ズウ・トス・ヴェーンクス
分類子シャツ/トップスパンツ1枚
「一套衣服裤子、上下が揃っているスーツや衣装」
• 【tut,套】: スーツや衣装と一緒に使われます。例:
ズー・トゥット・ヴェーン
分類シャツ/トップス 1 枚
「一套衣服」
• 【dhanx、条、根】:線状の物に使われます。例:
ズー・ダンクス・ドーイ
分類ロープ1本
「一根ロープ」
ドム・ダンクス ノムズ
6つの分類器の川
「六条河」
• 【viens,块,张】:質量のある物体や平面の物体に使われます。例:
あなたはまだ知らない
七分類子皮水牛
「七张牛皮、七枚の牛皮」
• 【rueis、块、张】:通常は平らな面を持つ平面物に使用されます。例:
こんにちは、ありがとうございます
2つの分類子肉豚
「两块猪肉、豚肉 2 枚」
フス ルイ ノエン ロイ
3つの分類子スキンmuntjak
「三张麂子皮、三枚のセーム革(小さなカモシカ)の皮」
• 【ban、头、只】:牛や馬に使われます。例:
ガス禁止令
2つの分類馬
「二頭の馬」
• 【pous/paus,堆】:比較的小さな山に使われる(pous/pausは動詞でもある)。例:
ズウ・ポウス・ヴァン
1つの分類器地球
「一堆土」
ズー・ポウス・ガンズ
分類器1つ薪
「一堆柴、薪の山」
• 【くん,堆】:比較的大きな山に使います。例:
ズー君夢
籾殻の中の米の分類器1つ
「一大堆稻谷、大きな米の山」
• 【baep,把】:通常は苗木に使用されます(海南島/Hlai族の領土には小麦はありません)。例:
ズー・ベープファン
分類苗木1本
「一掴秧、一握りの稲の苗」
• 【把( つか ) 】:通常は米と一緒に使われます。例:
zuu hax muens
1つの分類器米
「一掴稻子、一掴みの米」
• 【bhaeng,between】: 通常、部屋や建物と一緒に使用されます。例:
ズー ベン ブロンズ
分類器ハウス1軒
「一间屋子、建物/家」
ズー ベン キアフェイ
1つの分類器列
「一节火車厢、ボックスカー」
• 【bhaengs,梭/颗、封】:通常、手紙(郵便で送られるような書面による通信)、弾丸、爆竹などと一緒に使用されます。例:
ズー ベン ベジ
分類子の箇条書き
「一梭/颗子弾、弾丸」
ズー ベン ジエンクス
分類子文字 1 つ
「一封信」
• 【bhak,块 】:平らな物に使われることが多い。例:
ズー バク ギアス
分類ガラス1個
「一块玻ガラス、ガラス片」
ズー バク キアス
分類用紙 1 枚
「一枚の硬纸片、一枚のボール紙」
• 【bheek,幅】:通常は絵や絵画と一緒に使われます。例:
ズー ベック ウエックス
分類子の絵/絵画
「一幅画、絵/絵画」
• 【bhuek,把】:通常はわらと一緒に使用されます。例:
ズー ブクス ングウィエン
分類ストロー 1 本
「一掴稻草、一握りのわら」
• 【bhui,本】:通常は本と一緒に使われます。例:
こんにちは
2つの分類子ブック
「二冊の本」
• 【cax,座】:通常は山と一緒に使われます。例:
ズー カックス ハウス
1つの分類子の山
「一座山」
• 【ceuus、枝、秆】:通常はペンや棒と一緒に使われます。例:
ズー セウス ビット
分類ペン1本
「一支笔、ペン」
• 【cueng,枚】:通常は針と一緒に使用されます。例:
ズー・クエン・グティ
分類針1本
「一枚针」
• 【dhien,畦または 幅 】:通常は農地(畦で区切られた畑の長方形の区画、通常は野菜を栽培する)に使用されますが、布にも使用されます。例:
ブーダエイス
分類子 1 つ 土地/土 野菜
「一畦菜地、野菜の寝床」
ズーディエン ドホップ
分類布1枚
「一幅布」
• 【dhun、户、家 】:通常は世帯に使用されます。例:
bhous fa zaaux hlaus fuet dun blongs 。
私たちの村には2つの10の分類世帯があります
「我们村子有二十户人家、私たちの村には20世帯あります。」
• 【ガス、辆、架】:通常は車や飛行機に使われます。例:
ズーガスキア
分類車1台
「一辆車、自動車」
ズーガスヴァブヘニー
分類機1機
「一架飛行機」
• 【ghoeix、行、排】: 行、行、例:
フス ゴエ カイ
3つの分類ツリー
「三行树」
ズー ゴエックス キアス
分類子の単語/文字 1 つ
「一行字、一行の言葉」
• 【は、缕 】:通常は光と一緒に使用されます。
• 【hus,副】: トランプやポーカーなどでよく使われます。
• 【hwoens、堆、块】:通常、積み重ねることができるフィールドまたはオブジェクトに使用されます。例:
ズー・フォン・ガンズ
分類器1つ薪
「一堆柴火、薪の山」
ズー・フォン・ダックス
1つの分類フィールド
「一块水田」
• 【hluut,層】:「層」や「レベル」を意味します。例:
フス・フルート・ラエウス
建物の3つの分類子の階
「三層楼」
ヴァン・ネイシュは、この事件を深く憂慮しています。
この土地には3つの分類器の厚さがあります
「这土有三層厚、この土は三層になっています。」
• 【ka,枝】:通常は枝と一緒に使われます。例:
ズーカカイ
1つの分類ツリー
「一枝树枝」
• 【kok、棵】:キノコと一緒に使われることが多い。例:
ズーコックデティ
分類キノコ1個
「一棵菌子」
• 【只,只 】:通常は1つの対象と対になって使われます。例:
ズークエンズーゴエムズ
分類器シュー 1 個
「一只鞋、靴」
ズー・コエン・フィック
1つの分類子分類子
「半挑西、荷物の半分を前に、残りの半分を後ろに担いで、棒を肩に担ぐこと(fiek:肩に物を担ぐ動作が分類子になる)」
• 【kou、張、顶 】:通常はメッシュと一緒に使用されます。例:
ズー コウ ゴエイス hla
1つの分類器ネット魚
「一张魚網」
• 【liemx,瓣】:クローブや果物の一部と一緒に使われることが多い。例:
zuu liemx coembhem
1つの分類子グレープフルーツ
「一瓣柚子、グレープフルーツ」
• 【leep、叠】:通常、紙のような薄い物に使用されます。例:
こんにちは
分類用紙2枚
「两层纸、紙2枚」
• 【瓣、片、層 】:通常、薄い物に使用されます
• 【luuengs,把】:通常は鋸(のこぎりで切るための道具)と一緒に使用されます
• 【moux、种、类】: 「種類、分類」を意味します。例:
neix zuu moux hleny
この分類器は良い
「这一种好、これはいいですね。」
数日間待ってください
多くの分類子米を持っている
「有好多种稻子、お米にはたくさんの種類があります。」
• 【paeng,串】:通常は果物と一緒に使われます。例:
ズー ペーン ズーロン
1つの分類器ビンロウの実
「一串槟榔、ビンロウの塊」
• 【pienx,把】:通常はナイフと一緒に使用されます。例:
ズーピエンクスガス
分類ナイフ1個
「一把刀」
• 【puens、杆、根】:通常は木の幹や棒状または桿状の物体に使用されます。例:
ズー・プエンス・カイ
1つの分類ツリー
「一根树干、切り株(または木の幹)」
ズー・プエンス・ビット
分類ペン1本
「一支笔、ペン」
• 【raeis、块、片 】: 分野に使用されます。例:
ズー・レイス・ダックス
1つの分類フィールド
「一片田」
• 【ras,棵,株 】:通常は草や稲に使われます。例:
ズーラスガンス
1つの分類子草
「一葉草」
• 【rok,块 】:通常、丘陵地の畑(水源から遠い畑)に使用されます。例:
ズー ロック アン
1つの分類フィールド
「一块刀耕地」
(具体的には、焼失した土地の残りの灰を将来の農業のために肥料として利用する。これは、Hlai 族の古代の農法だが、現在は CN 政府によって禁止されている)
フス ロック ポス
3 つの分類器の丘陵フィールド
「三块旱地、丘の中腹にある3つの野原」
• 【ruets、摞 】:通常は重い物に使われます
• 【taeu、批、群 】:通常、一群の商品や一群の動物に対して使用されます。例:
キャティ・ズー・タエウ・リエム
分類鎌を1つ購入する
「买一批镰刀、鎌の束を買ってください」
ズー・テウ・ジーン
1 つの分類子 ヤギ/羊
「一群羊」
• 【tuueng,把】:通常は農具に使用されます。例:
ズー・トゥエン・リック
分類レーキ 1 台
「一把耙」
• 【vaen,梳、下】:通常、櫛のような、櫛の形をした物に使用されます。例:
ズー・ヴェーン・ウィーク
分類器バナナ1個
「一梳芭蕉、バナナの束」
または、杵を打つ回数を数えるのに使われる。例:
シーク・フート・ヴェーン
乳棒10分類器
「舂十下、杵を十回打つ」
• 【vans、张、页、幅、块】: 通常、紙製品に使用されます。
ズー・ヴァンス・キア
分類用紙 1 枚
「一枚の紙」
ズーヴァンスダイエット
分類子画像 1 つ
「一幅写真」
• 【voei,桶】:バケツで運べるものによく使われます。例:
ズー・ヴォエイ・ゲイ
1つの分類器米
「一桶米」
• 【vong,嘟噜 】:通常、房状に形成されたものに対して使用されます(熱帯の果物は通常、ココナッツ、ビンロウの実などの房状になっています)。例:
ズー・ヴォン・コエムカイ
1つの分類子フルーツ
「一嘟噜果子、果物の房」
B. 測定のための分類子
• 【エーカー】: (中国語のエーカー) 土地や畑の面積を表す単位。約667平方メートル。例:
ズー マウス ダックス
1つの分類フィールド
「一亩田」
• 【dho,丈】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.
zuu dho dhop
one classifier cloth or textile
"一丈布, one zhang of cloth"
• 【qieux,尺】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.
hlaus qieux dhop
two classifier cloth or textile
"两尺布, two feet of cloth"
• 【cuns,寸】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.
fus cuns dhop
three classifier cloth or textile
"三寸布, three inches of cloth"
• 【hlaenx,庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5–6 feet.
• 【hwuup,拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15–20 centimeters, e.g.,
zuu hwuup daeus
one classifier length
"一拃长, one zuo length"
• 【tunx,节】: the length of a finger, about 6–9 centimeters.
• 【dhas,石】: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei, "十石米 (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.
• 【dhaeu,斗】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu dhaeu ghei,"一斗米 (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice)."10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.
• 【kax,升】: a unit of weight, e.g.,fus kax ghei, "三升米 (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.
• 【gins,斤】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu gins hla,"一斤鱼 (zuu: one, hla: fish)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.
• 【luuengx,两】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus,"一两盐 (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g
• 【dhun,吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei,"九吨铁, a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."
C. Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs
• 【kop,捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu kop ghei
one classifier rice
"一捧米, one scoop of rice"
• 【koens,捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu koens hya
one classifier thatch or couch grass
"一捆茅草, a sheaf of thatch"
• 【bhiek,捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,
zuu bhiek guns
one classifier firewood/sticks
"一捆柴, a bundle of firewood/sticks"
• 【zeems,撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu zeems nyaeus
one classifier salt
"一撮盐, one pinch (using all five fingers) of salt."
• 【jims,撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
jims zuugit nyaeus
pick up a little of salt
"拈一点盐, a pinch (using only two fingers) of salt"
hlaus jims nyaeus
two classifier salt
"两撮盐, two pinches of salt"
• 【fiek,担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,
zuu fiek guns
one classifier firewood
"一担柴a bundle of firewood"
zuu fiek zuugoems
one classifier shoe
"一双鞋, a pair of shoes"
• 【gok,杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu gok noms
one classifier water
"一杯水, a cup of water"
zuu gok ghweis
one classifier oil
"一瓶油, a bottle of oil"
• 【waeu,碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu waeu tax
one classifier cooked rice
"一碗饭, a bowl of rice"
• 【boux/baux,岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fuet ghou boux
one ten eight classifier
"十八岁, 18 years old"
• 【bhaem,围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,
hlaus blaem cai
two classifier tree
"两围的树 tree size of two men's arms wrapped around it"
• 【comx,袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,
zuu comx ghei
one classifier rice
"一袋米, a bag of rice"
• 【ding,升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu ding ghei
one classifier rice
"一升米, a barrel of rice"
• 【dhak,滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu dhak noms
one classifier water
"一滴水, a drop of water"
• 【dzuen,挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu dzuen hweek
one classifier banana
"一大挂芭蕉, a stalk of bananas"
• 【fas,阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fas fun
one classifier rain/shower
"一阵雨, a (rain) shower"
• 【fiens,把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fiens gwaek
one classifier hoe
"一把锄头, a hoe"
• 【fok,块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fok gom neix
one classifier region this
"这块地方, this region"
• 【gieps,夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
hlaus gieps hya
two. classifier thatch
"两夹茅草, two sheaves of thatch"
• 【guengs,篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu guengs ghei
one classifier hoe
"一筐米, a basket of rice"
• 【guety,串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu guety hla
one classifier fish
"一串鱼, a string of fish"
• 【neny,串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu neny hla
one classifier fish
"一串鱼, a string of fish"
• 【neny,枝】: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,
zuu neny ceeng
one classifier flower
"一枝花, a flower"
• 【ghongs,丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ghongs hweek
one classifier banana
"一丛芭蕉树, a grove of banana trees"
• 【hoep,盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu hoep cuax
one classifier matches
"一盒火柴, a box of matches"
• 【hwang,圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu hwang zuu hwang noms
one classifier one classifier water
"一圈一圈的水, a ripple (of water)"
• 【hwaeng,垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,
zuu hwaeng man
one classifier a general term for potato
"一垄甘薯, a ridge of sweet potatoes"
• 【hwoens,丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,
zuu hwoen dax
one classifier field
"一丘田, a field";
zuu hyoen haeus
one classifier quilt
"一床被子, a quilt"
• 【op,抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,
zuu op guns
one classifier firewood
"一抱柴火, an armful of firewood"
• 【puuen,代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,
fa buuen neix bhaeis zaux fus puuen bhe
We come here already have three classifier accent
"我们来这儿已有三代了, We've been here for three generations."
• 【rei,枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.
• 【ruek,窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ruek bou
one classifier pig/hug
"一窝猪, a litter of pigs"
zuu ruek kai
one classifier chicken
"一笼鸡, a cage of chickens"
zuu ruek aenx
one classifier cake
"一盒点心, a box of cakes"
Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,
zuu ruek dhou
one classifier urine
"一泡尿, a stream of urine"
• 【taen,场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
bhaeis vuek zuu taen dings.
Already do one classifier demon
"已经祭了一趟鬼, (The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons."
• 【taeng,桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu taeng noms
one classifier water
"一桶水, a bucket of water"
• 【tiep,夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,
zuu tiep bheuucai
one classifier vegetable
"一夹菜, a chopstick-pinch of food"
• 【tuck,包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu tuek dza
one classifier cigarettes
"一包烟, a pack of cigarettes"
• 【veeng,户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,
zuu veeng
one classifier
"一户(人家), a household."
• 【zaemx,步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ghwaen zaemx
one hundred classifier
"一百步, one hundred steps"
• 【zeeng,穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,
zuu zeeng muens
one classifier rice
"一穗稻子, a stalk of rice"
zuu zeeng nyaeus
one classifier salt
"一粒粗盐, a grain of coarse salt"
2. Classifiers for modifying verbs
• 【faei,下、次、回】: time, e.g.,
taeix zuu faei
hit/beat one classifier
"打一下, to hit/beat once"
• 【gaeis,回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,
na bhaeis rien hlaus gaeis
he/she already say/speak two classifier
"他已经说了两遍了, He already said (it) two times."
• 【guen,趟、遍】: time, e.g.,
hei zuu guen
go one classifier
"去一次, go (there) one time"
• 【caety,阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,
bhaeis fun zuu caety
Already rain one classifier
"下了一阵雨, It already showered."
kai bhaeis hyoen fus caety
Chicken already cock crow three classifier
"鸡已叫了三遍, The chicken has already crowed three times."
• 【pienx,遍】: time, e.g.,
tak zuu pienx
study one classifier
"读一遍, read one time"
• 【caeu,阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,
zuu caeu fun
one classifier rain
"一阵雨, a shower (describing rain)"
zuu caeu hwoet
one classifier wind
"一阵风, a gust of wind"
• 【caens,顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,
zuu caens tax
one classifier rice
"一顿饭, a meal"
• 【kok,脚】: feet, e.g.,
teeks zuu kok
kick one classifier
"踢一脚, give (it) a kick"
• 【boms,口】: mouth, e.g.,
gaenys zuu boms
bite one classifier
"咬一口, to take a bite"
• 【feek,口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,
lax zuu feek tax
eat one classifier rice
"吃一口饭, to take a bite of food"
na zuu feek tun ruus da rien
he/she one classifier word even not say
"他一句话也不说, He did not even say a word."
• 【pui,阵、遍】: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,
gaux zuu pui
sleep one classifier
"睡一觉, time spent in rest/sleep"
The basic rules for Classifiers in Hlai language[21][20]
1. Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g.,
Daty zuu kun zuu kun bheny.
bird one classifier one classifier fly
"鸟成群成群地飞,Birds fly in groups."
2. Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,
Zuu lang ba neix long dhat!
one classifier dog this big really/truly
"这只狗真大!This dog is really big!"
3. Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g.,
Raux fus gaeis =Fus gaeis raux
read aloud three classifier= three classifier read
"读三遍,read three times"
Taeix zuu guen = Zuu guen taeix
hit one classifier = one classifier hit
"打一次,to hit/punch one time"
4. In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,
Hou caty zuu hom, meuu ngan caty zuu hom.
I buy one classifier you also buy one classifier
"我买一个,你也买一个,I buy one, and you buy one."
[22][23]
There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.
The different usage of "hou" and "dhes"[24]
- The women prefer to use "hou" when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use "hou" in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.
- When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters...etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use "hou" or "dhes"; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use "dhes" when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.
- Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use "hou"; when men speak to men, either "hou" or "dhes" can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use "hou".
- Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word "hou" is preferable to express politeness.
- Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word "hou" must be used to express politeness and respect.
- When someone asks a who question, "Asras…?" If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, "hou" is preferable over "dhes", e.g.,
Asras
Who
dhuus
is
hauux?
there?
A:
A:
Hou
I
res!
accent
Q: Who is there? A: (It's) I.
- If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g.,
Q:
Q:
Asras
Who
dhuus
is
hauux?
there?
A:
A:
Dhes
Me
vi!
accent!
Asras?
Who?
"Q: Who is there? A: (it's) I! Who else?"
- When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use "hou"; if he uses "dhes", she would think he is not sincere, e.g.,
Tuuen
Go out
dhang
face
duuengx
give
hou
me
nga;
look
tuuen
go out
ca
eye
duuengx
give
hou
me
laeis
see
"Let me see your face; let me look into your eyes."
- When someone speaks rudely, he uses "dhes" instead of "hou".
- In today's Hlai society, the difference between "hou" and "dhes" is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use "hou"; men usually use "dhes". The word "hou" expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word "dhes" is more casual.
P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.
Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,
Na
he
taeix
hit
hluuek
child
daty.
bird
"He hit the little bird."
dheuu
take
toencai
stick
taeix
hit
na
him
"take a stick to hit him"
Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,
Gha
we
vou
follow
tun
words
na
his
hei
to
vuek.
do
"Let's follow his words to do (it)."
Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,
Neix
this
man
is
hou
I
zuenzauus
self
vuek.
do
"I made it myself."
The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
Neix
this
zuu
one
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
man
is
guu na.
his
"This chicken is his."
Blongs
house
neix
this
man
is
guu dhes.
mine
"This house is mine."
Demonstrative pronouns
- 【neix,这】: this; here; so; such
- 【hauux,那】: that; there; so; such
- 【max,那】: that; there
The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,
- 【dhongneix,这】: like this
- 【dhonghauux,那】: like that
- 【hineix,这】: such
- 【hihauux,那】: like that
Other demonstrative pronouns are:
- 【uughwaix,别的】: other
- 【ranx,每】: every
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,
Neix
this
veengs
shirt/top
baen.
new
"This (is) a new dress."
Hauux
that
duis
water buffalo
long.
big
"That (is) a big buffalo."
When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,
Hauux
that
zuu
one
kuuengx
CLF
cai
tree
hleny
good
baisias.
very
"That tree is very good."
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,
Neix
this
zuu
one
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
ghweis.
fat
"This chicken is fat."
Zuu
one
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
neix
this
ghweis.
fat
"This chicken is fat."
If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,
Neix
this
man
are
hlaus
two
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
enyx.
little
"These are two chicks."
The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,
Dhongneix
like this
vuek
do
yos?
Q
"Is it done like this?"
Gong
stuff
dhongneix
like this
hleny
good
yos?
Q
"Is such a thing as this good?"
Yous
don't
rien
say
dhonghauux.
like that
"Don't say that."
Meuu
you
dhonghauux
like that
yos.
Q
"Are you like that?"
There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,
Zuu
one
kun
CLF
daty
bird
hauux
that
bheny
fly
he.
accent
"The flock of birds (is) flying away."
Zuugit
some
ghei
rice
neix
this
ghei
rice
uuras?
whose
"Whose rice is this?"
When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,
Buuemx
shrimp
neix
this
long.
big
"This shrimp is big."
Na
he
qieus
take
hloei
many/much
neix.
so/such
"He took so much."
Meuu
you
dheuu
take/want
raux
little/few
hauux.
so/such
"You took/want so little."
When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,
Meuu
you
neix
empty word
kweis
want
dheuu
take
gong
stuff
meshes?
what
"What are you going to take?"
Uuras
who
hauux
empty word
gongx
look for
hou?
me
"Who is looking for me?"
The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,
Ranx
every
zuen
CLF
lax
eat
zuu
one
hom.
CLF
"Everyone eats one."
Ranx
every
ranx
every
zuen
CLF
uuaeu
man
ruus
all
lax
eat
zuu
one
hom.
CLF
"Everyone eats one."
The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,
gong
stuff
uughwaix
other
"other stuff"
aeu
man
uughwaix
other
"other's"
Zaux
have
uughwaix
other
cas
or
da?
not
"Do (you) have (any) other stuff?"
Interrogative pronouns
- 【ras,哪,如何】: Where? Which? How?
- 【uuras/asras,谁】: Who?
- 【dhongras,怎样】: How?
- 【qiras,何时】: When? What time?
- 【hloeiras,多少】: How much? How many?
- 【meshes,什么】: What?
- others
The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,
Uuras
who?
gongx
look for
hou?
me
"Who is looking for me?"
Meuu
you
laeis
see
uuras?
who?
"Who do you see?"
Na
he
buuen
come
blongs
house
uuras?
who?
"Whose house is he coming to?"
Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" isplaced before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
Nyiu
cow
max
that
man
is
guu uuras?
whose?
"Whose cow is that?"
Veengs
shirt/top
neix
this
man
is
guu uuras?
whose?
"Whose shirt/top is this?"
The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,
Gong
stuff
meshes
what
vaeu
most
hleny?
good
"What is the best stuff?"
Na
he
kweis
want
dheuu
take
meshes?
what
"What does he want to take?"
The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,
Na
he
dhuus
exist
ras?
where?
"Where is he?"
When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,
Ras
which
zuu
one
hom
CLF
blongs
house
vaeu
most
long?
big
"Which house is the biggest one?"
When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,
Coem
fruit
neix
this
long
big
ras?
how
"How big is this fruit?"
The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,
Dhongras
How
lax
eat
ngan
also
da
not
bhaeis.
finish
"There is more food than we can eat."
Ang
hilly field
neix
this
ghwa
plant
dhongras?
how?
"How is this hilly field to be planted?"
The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,
Meuu
you
qiras
when
hei
go
qix?
street
"When are you heading out for the streets (to buy something)?"
Na
he
qiras
when
beuubuuen
go back
ohyaeu?
school
"When is he going back to school?"
The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,
Meuu
you
zaux
have
hloeiras,
how many
hou
I
dheuu
take
hloeiras.
how many
"However many you have, I will take them."
Adverbs
[25][26]
Negation
- 【da,不】: not
- 【yous,不要,别】: Do not
- others
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,
Hansneix
now
na
he/she
da
not
hei.
go
"Today he won't go."
Gong
stuff
neix
this
reek
bad
he,
accent
yous
don't
lax.
eat
"This stuff (is) bad, don't eat (it)!"
When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,
Na
he/she
da
not
buuen.
come
"He won't come."
Na
he/she
da
not
buuen
come
zo
EMPH
"He hasn't come yet!"
When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,
Meuu
you
zaux
have
kius
ball
da?
Q
"Do you have a ball?"
Degree
- 【veau,最】: for expressing superlative degree
- 【duix,最】: for expressing superlative degree (this is a loan word)
- 【zangs,太】: too
- 【nguenxges,更加】: more, even more (this is a loan word)
- 【loeppvaix,恰恰,相当】: just right, just enough, exactly
- 【dhat,很】: very
- 【baisias,很,极,非常】: very much
- others
These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,
vaeu
most
reek
bad
"worst"
duix
most
hlenymuuen
beautiful
"most beautiful"
zangs
too
fous
hot
"too hot"
nguenxges
even
hleny
good
"even better"
loeppvaix
exactly
hleny
good
"just right"
But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,
kaeix
cold
dhat
very
"very cold"
dzuuns
quick
baisias
very much
"very quick"
To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,
vaeu
most
dzuuns
quick
baisias
very much
"Very, very (extremely) quick"
Na
he/she
vaeu
most
vaet
poor
baisias
very much
"He is very, very (extremely) poor."
The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,
Veengs
shirt/top
neix
this
hleny
good
dhatdhat.
very much
"This shirt/top is a very good one."
Scope, extent, or range
- 【ruus,都】: all
- 【ngan,也,都】: also, all
- 【nyoengx,仅,只】: only
- 【mans,仅,只】: only
- others
These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,
Uengxtoengs
everyone
ruus
all
qim.
believe
"Everyone believes that."
Hou
I
ngan
also
vuek.
do
"I also do (that)."
Na
he/she
mans/nyoengx
only
dheuu
take
zuu
one
hom
CLF
coem.
fruit
"He only took one fruit."
These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,
Na
he/she
mans-nyoengx
only
zaux
have
zuu
one
zuen
CLF
hluuek.
child
"He has only one child."
Timing
- 【bhaeis,已经】: already
- 【kuenx,先】: earlier, before, first, in advance
- 【naeus,刚】: just, a moment ago
- 【faets,正在】: in process
- 【dhom,还】: still, yet
- 【fan,就,便】: then (This word is usually used in a narrative when describing something.)
- 【goms,就】: then (This word is usually used in a quote.)
- others
These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,
Na
he/she
naeus naeus
just
buuen.
come
"He has just come."
Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,
Na
he/she
naeus
just
hei
go out
tuuen
from
blongs.
house
"He's just gone out of the house."
Na
he/she
dhom
still
da
not
hei
go
zo.
EMPH
"He hasn't gone yet."
Zuughanx
right after
hluet
enter
blongs
house
hou
I
fan
then
laeis
see
na.
he/she
"As soon as I entered the house, I saw him."
meuu
you
buuen
come
dhaens
to
neix
here
goms
then
bhaeisyous
never/not
hei
go
beuu.
back
"(Since) You came here, don't go back."
Meuu
you
kuenx
first
rien.
say
"You speak first."
However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,
Meuu
you
rien
say
kuenx.
first
"You speak first."
Duplication or continuation
- 【loms,又,再,还】: also, again,
- 【uuloms,又,再,还】: also, again,
- 【toengs,互相】: each other
- others
These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,
Meuu
you
loms
again
rien
say
zuu
one
gaeis.
CLF
"Repeat that once more."
Kun
they
taeix
fight
toengs
each other
he.
EMPH
"They fought each other."
The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,
Meuuda
you.PL
yous
don't
taeix
fight
toengs
each other
as!
EMPH
"Don't fight each other!"
Emphasis or transition
- 【oms,又,却】: but, a signal word for a transition
- 【naus,到底】: a signal word for emphasis
- 【cuuslax,原来】: so, a signal word for a transition
- others
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Baiscai
big-tree
long
big
neix
such
oms
but
caeu.
break
"Such a big tree, but (it) was broken!"
Aeu
others
naus
emphasis
cas
scold
meuu
you
vuek
do
meshes
what=why?
"Why do people scold you?"
A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,
Cuuslax
so
na
he/she
dhuus
exist/in
max.
there
"So, there he is!"
Conjunctions
[27][28]
Link nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases
- 【uengx,和,与】: and
- 【ku,跟,同,和】: and, to, with
- 【nyuek,同,和】: and, with
- others
That link nouns:
Ba
dog
ku
and
bou
pig
zestoengs
fight each other
kweis
want
lax
eat
tax.
rice
"A dog and a pig fight each other for food to eat."
Toengsdhun
wife
nyuek
and
toengsblongs
husband
uengxtoengs
together
ojiep.
learn
"A husband and (his) wife study together."
That link pronouns:
Hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
uengxtoengs
together
vuek
do
gong.
work
"I and you will work together."
That link noun phrases:
Hou
I
duuengx
give
meuu
you
dheuu
AUX
zuu
one
hom
CLF
coem
fruit
long
big
ku
and
hlaus
two
hom
CLF
guengs.
basket
"I'll give you the big fruit and two large baskets."
That link verb-object phrases:
Dhes
I
hei
go
qix
street
lax
eat
tax
rice
ku
and
lax
eat
bhiengx.
sticky rice wine
"I hit the streets to eat rice and drink wine."
These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,
Uengx
and
hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
uengx
and
na
he
hei
go
caty
buy
gong.
stuff
"I and you and he will go shopping."
These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:
The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,
Baisdza
Mother
zok
rebuke
nyuek
and
cas,
scold,
pasdza
father
cas
scold
nyuek
and
taeix.
beat
"(The) mother rebuked and scolded, (the) father scolded and beat."
Some adverbs, like "loms" (又,却,again) and "hloeis" (顺便,by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,
Duis
water buffalo
hauux
that
long
big
hloeis
and
ghweis.
fat
"That buffalo is big and fat."
Guen
road
neix
this
bheeng
wide
loms
and
muety.
straight
"This road is wide and straight."
Link verbs, adjectives, and phrases
- 【cuus,或者,还是】: or
- 【cas,或者,还是】: or
- 【cuusnaus,还是】: or
- others
Meuu
You
gaux
lie down
cuus
or
zongs
sit
ngan
also
loepp.
allow
"You are allowed to either lie down or sit down."
Meuu
You
hei
go
cuus
or
da?
not
"Are you going or not?"
Veengs
shirt/top
dhes
my
neix
this
hleny
good
cas
or
da?
not
"Does my dress/top look good?"
naeusneix
Recently
meuu
you
hleny
good
cas
or
da?
not
"How have you been recently?"
Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Na
He
hei
go
cuusnaus
or
hou
I
hei?
go
"Is he going or should I go?"
Meuu
You
kweis
want
caty
buy
rasbluenx
pineapple
cuusnaus
or
caty
buy
lauxmety?
jackfruit
"Do you want pineapple or jackfruit?"
Link a single subordinate clause
- 【hans,因为】: because
- 【dosdzis,所以】: so
- 【laeis,如果】: if
- 【tom,但是】: but
- 【dagoms,不然】: otherwise
- others
Hans
Because
na
he
da
not
buuen,
come,
hou
I
da
not
hei
go
bhe.
accent
"Because he didn't come, I didn't go."
Na
He
kueng
know
caqias,
script
dosdzis
so
na
he
kuengghweuu
know
li.
principle
"Because he knows the script, he understands the principle."
Laeis
If
meuu
you
hei,
go
hou
I
goms
then
dzoeng
wait
meuu.
you
"If you go, then I'll wait for you."
qimax
Before
gha
we
vaet
poor
baisias,
very much
tom
but
hansneix
now
da
not
dhong
like
qihauux
before
bhe.
accent
"Before we were very poor, but now we are not like we were before."
Meuu
You
hei,
go
dagoms
otherwise
na
he
hei.
go
"You go, otherwise he'll go."
The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,
Na
He
dagoms
not only
gieu
know
laix
how
dax,
plow
uuloms
field
gieu
but also
kieux
know how
muens.
reap rice
"Not only does he know how to plow, but he also knows how to harvest."
Meuu
You
fei
walk
guen
road
hei,
go
dagoms
otherwise
zongs
sit
qia
car
hei.
go
"You (can) walk (there), or take a bus (there)."
Link two or more clauses
Gas
Horse
dacaux
not only
lax
eat
gans,
grass
lax
eat
uengx
also
noms.
water
"A horse not only eats grass, but also drinks water."
Na
He
dacaux
not only
taeix
beat
meuu,
you
taeix
beat
koms
even
hou.
me
"Not only did he beat you, he even beat me."
Dhes
I
dacaux
not only
zaux
have
pasghueng,
younger brother,
zaux
have
toep
even
baisghueng.
younger sister
"I not only have (a) younger brother(s), (but) I even have (a) younger sister(s)."
Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,
Duis
buffalo
neix
this
danyoengx
not only
long
big
kaux,
strength
uuloms
but also
doengs
live
gans.
grass
"The cow is not only strong, but it also eats grass quietly."
Na
He
dagoms
not only
gieu
know
laix
how
dax,
plow
uuloms
field
gieu
but also
kieux
know how
muens.
reap rice
"He not only knows how to plow the field, but he also knows how to harvest the rice."
Hans
Because
uupans
yesterday
fas
sky
fun,
rain
dosdzis
so
hou
I
gax
cannot
buuen.
come
"(Because) It was raining yesterday, so I couldn't come."
Relationships between linked elements
Parallel relationship
The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g.,
Hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
hei.
go
"I'll go with you."
Uengx
And
hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
uengx
and
na
he
hei
go
vuek
do
gong.
work
"I will go to work with you and him."
Toengsdhun
Wife
nyuek
and
toengsblongs
husband
uengxtoengs
together
ojiep.
study/learn
"The husband and wife study together."
Hou
I
hei
go
qix
street
caty
buy
veengs
shirt/top
ku
and
caty
buy
kous.
pants
"I went shopping to buy a coat and to buy pants.
Dhes
I
duuengx
give
na
him
lax
auxiliary
zuu
one
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
ku
and
zuu
one
lang
CLF
ba.
dog
"I gave him a chicken and a dog."
Progressive relationship
The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...,not only... but also...), e.g.,
Na
He
lax
eat
zuu
one
feek
bite
loms
and
zuu
one
feek.
bite
"He eats (one) bite by (one) bite."
Gong
stuff
neix
this
fas
sour
hloeis
and
ghety.
hot
"This is sour and hot."
Na
He
dacaux
not only
cas
scold
hou,
me
cas
scold
koms/uengx
even/and
meuu.
you
"Not only did he scold me, but he even/also scolded you."
In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.
Optional relationship
The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,
Meuuda
You
kweis
want
hei
go
geek
look for
hla
fish
cuus
or
da?
not
"Are you going to go fishing or not?"
Gha
We
caem
carry by hand
cuus
or
bhiek
carry by shoulder
les?
Q
"Will we carry (it) with our hands or on our shoulders?"
Meuu
You
kweis
want
dheuu
take
zuucoeis
litchi
cuusnaus
or
dheuu
take
zuuyunx?
coconut
"Do you want to choose litchi or coconut?"
Transitional relationship
The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,
Na
He
ghwaix
is not
Hlai,
Li
tom
but
kueng
know
rien
say
tun
language
Hlai
Li
"He is not a Li, but he speaks the Li dialect."
Na
He
kweis
want
hei,
go
oms
but
wenysnaeis
no
hwan
day
"He's willing to go, but there's no time."
Conditional relationship
The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,
Dalunx
no matter what
na
he
rien
say
dhongras,
how
hou
I
ngan
also
hei
go
"No matter what he says, I'll go."
Laeis
If
na
he
da
not
buuen,
come
hou
I
goms
then
hei
go
lo
accent
"If he doesn't come, then I'll go."
Causal relationship
The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Dhes
I
da
not
hei,
go
hans
because
zaux
have
cok
sickness
"I'm not going because I'm sick."
Fas
Sky
fun,
rain
yous
don't
hei,
go
dagoms
otherwise
ia
gain
cok
sickness
"It's raining. Don't go! Otherwise, you'll get sick."
Prepositions
[29][30]
Place, direction, or time
A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【dhuus,在】: in, at, on
- 【tuuen,从】: from
- 【ueks,里】: inside
Meuu
You
doengs
live
dhuus
in
max
there
hyo!
accent
"You live there!"
Meuu
You
buuen
come
tuuen
from
ras?
where?
"Where do you come from?"
However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,
Meuu
You
dhuus
in
max
there
doengs
live
hyo!
accent
"You live there!"
Meuu
You
tuuen
from
ras
where
buuen?
come
"Where do you come from?"
The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,
zongs
Sit
dhuus
in
ueks
inside
hauux
there
"Sit in (inside) there"
The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,
Ueks
Inside
blongs
house
neix
this
mangshais
dark
baisias.
very
"Inside of the house is very dark."
B. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.
- 【dhaens,到】: until
- 【zok,往,向】: toward, to
- 【dhuas,过】: through
- 【buu,在】: on, in
- 【beeng,沿】: along
Bhousaeu
Guest
dzoeng
wait
meuu
you
dhaens
until
cop.
night
"The guest(s) waited for you until night."
Fa
We
hei
go
zok
to/toward
ohyaeu.
school
"We are going to the school."
Aeu
People
fei
walk
reuureuu
back and forth
dhuas
along
ngaeix
edge
bhous.
village
"People walk back and forth along the outskirts of the village."
Ghais
Tell
na
him
pien
wear
buu
on
huen.
body
"Tell him to wear it."
Daty
Bird
roeng
chirping
buu
on
peek
east
goep
fence
maeis.
sugarcane
"The bird is chirping on the eastern fence of the sugar cane garden."
fei
walk
beeng
along
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
"walk along the river bank"
C. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【niens,沿】: along
Na
He
niens
along
guen
road
hauux
that
hei
go
ohyaeu.
school
"He traveled along that road to school."
However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after averb, e.g.,
fei
walk
niens
along
hyoen
ridge
dax
field
"walk along the ridge of the field"
Prepositions related to method
- 【aens,按】: by, according to (this is a loan word)
Kunaeu
They
aens
according to
laeustaeng
work
gieu
strong
ku
and
gax
weak
buuen
come
gauxtoengs.
distribute
"They distributed the work according to the capability of the laborers."
Prepositions related to reason, or purpose
- 【guu ghais,为了】: for the purpose
- 【uis,为了】: for (this is a loan word)
- 【uislaeus,为了】: for (this is a loan word)
- 【cuuslax,由于】: because of
vuuengx
disturb
hwoek
heart
cuuslax
because of
meuu
you
"upset because of you"
The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above.
Veeng
Master
duis
water buffalo
kweis
want
beuu
go back
fan
then
taeix
hit
duis,
water buffalo
guu ghais
in order that
duis
water buffalo
dzuuns
fast/quick
fei.
walk
"The buffalo's owner wanted to go home and so hit the buffalo, in order to get the buffalo to walk fast."
Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus".
Prepositions related to object
A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【toep,连】: even
- 【koms,连】: even
- 【goem,对,和,与】: to, with
- 【ku,对,和】: to
Na
He
vaet
poor
toep/koms
even
fok
place
gaux
to sleep
ngan
also
wenysnaeis.
no
"He is so poor that he even has no place to sleep."
vuektun
sing
goem
with
na.
him
"Sing a song with him."
Baisdza
Mother
rien
say
ku
to
na.
him
"(His) mother told him."
However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,
Baisdza
Mother
ku
to
na
him
rien.
say
"(His) mother told him."
B. When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.
- 【dhuas,过】: than
Ghueng
Younger sister
baiscuty
youngest
hlenymuuen
beautiful
dhuas
than
kun
plural
hluuekkauus.
older sister
"The youngest sister is more beautiful than her older sisters."
C. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【uengx,和,跟】: with
Na
He
uengx
with
enyxlauux
kids
taeixtoengs.
fight
"He fought with the child(ren)."
However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Na
He
buuen
come
doengs
play
uengx
with
hluuekpasghueng.
young brother
"He came to play with (his) little brother."
5. Prepositions related to agent
A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【ia,被】: by
- 【ghoems,被】: by
- 【dheuu,把】: by using
Na
He
ia
by
ba
dog
gaenys
bite
he!
accent
"He was bitten by a dog!"
Hou
I
ghoems
by
na
him
taeix
hit
bhe.
accent
"I was hit by him."
Baisdza
Mother
dheuu
use
ghei
rice
roengx
cook
tax.
rice
"Mother cooked rice from grains of rice."
Auxiliary words
[31][32]
Structural auxiliary words
There are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens"
When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,
Gong
Stuff
neix
this
guu
belong to
meuu.
you
"This is yours."
Blongs
House
hauux
that
man
is
guu
belong to
dhes.
me
"That house is mine."
However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g.,
Veengs
shirt/top
neix
this
veengs
shirt/top
na.
he/she
"This dress is hers."
The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g.,
Uu-ghaens
AUX-red
hleny.
good
"The red one is good."
Hou
I
lax
eat
uu-enyx.
the small one
"I will eat the small one."
Neix
This
man
is
gong
stuff
uu-lax.
AUX-eat
"This is something that can be eaten."
Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g.,
Kaeix
Cold
dhaens
so as to
nyan.
shiver
"It is so cold as to (make one) shiver."
Fas
Sour
dhaens
so as to
maeu
drool
nomshloei.
saliva
"It is so sour as to (make one) drool."
Na
He
ghweis
fat
dhaens
so as to
gax
cannot
fei
walk
guen.
road
"He is so fat that it's hard (for him) to walk."
Na
He
hei
go
dhaens
arrive
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
fan
then
beuuluung.
come back
"He went to the riverside and later he will come back."
Past tense auxiliary word
The word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,
Hou
I
hei
go
dhuas
AUX
Bhakgengs.
Beijing
"I have been to Beijing."
Meuu
You
laeis
see
dhuas
AUX
na
he
cuus
or
da?
not?
"Have you seen him?"
Hou
I
qieng
think
dhuas
AUX
muixdhoeis
question
neix.
this
"I thought about this question."
Acting-receiving auxiliary words
Both the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.
The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.
Pashlaus
Older brother
hou
my
duuengx
give
na
him
lax
AUX
zuu
one
lang
CLF
ba.
dog
"My brother gave him a dog."
Meuu
You
dun
teach
hou
me
lax
AUX
tun
language
Hlai.
Li
"You teach me the Li's language."
Hou
I
rien
say
duuengx
to
na
him
lax.
AUX
"I spoke to him."
The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,
Na
He
duuengx
give
hou
me
dheuu
AUX
zuu
one
hom
CLF
coem.
fruit
"He gave me one fruit."
Zuu
One
hom
CLF
zuuyunx
coconut
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
dheuu.
AUX
"This coconut is for you."
Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable.
[33][34]
Indicative mood
There are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus"
A. 【lo, 了】:this word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,
Fas
sky
fun
rain
lo.
accent
"It's going to rain."
Meuu
you
dhongneix
like this
vuek
do
goms
then
da
not
dhiu
right
lo.
accent
"It is not right for you to do this."
B. 【bhe, 啊】:this word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g.,
Fas
sky
fun
rain
bhe.
accent
"It is raining (it rained)."
Aeu
person
reek
bad
hauux
that
hlaeux
die
bhe.
accent
"That bad man died."
Man
potato
hauux
that
hleny
good
lax
eat
bhe.
accent
"That sweet potato was delicious."
C. 【ve/vi, 的, 了】:this word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Qias
letter
neix
this
ghwaix
is not
hou
I
taeis
write
ve.
accent
"This word is not what I wrote."
Meuu
you
duuengx
give
hou
I
goms
then
bhaeis
finish
ve.
accent
"Give (it to) me, then it's done."
D. 【he,啦】:this word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Dhes
I
vuek
do
gong
work
bhaeis
finished
he.
accent
"I finished (my) job."
E. 【zo/zu,还…呢】:this word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Hla
Fish
dhom
still
hlou
alive
zo.
accent
"The fish is still alive."
Na
He
dhom
still
da
not
vuek
do
zo!
accent
"He hasn't done it yet."
Fas
Sky
da
not
fun
rain
zo!
accent
"It hasn't rained yet."
Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g.,
Aeu
person
reek
bad
hauux
that
da
not
hlaeux
die
zuho!
accent
"Why hasn't the bad man died yet?"
Hou
I
da
not
laeis
see
meshes
anything
zunex!
accent
"I haven't seen anything!"
F. 【rus,呢】:this word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,
Hwanneix
today
na
he
da
not
buuen
come
rus.
accent
"He won't come today."
Fa
we
neix
this
zuu
one
tienx
fish's name
zans
up.
zuu
one
tienx
fish's name
luei,
down
da
not
laeis
see
rus.
accent
"(A fish said:) We fish swam back and forth, (you) did not see."
There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras".
A. 【hos,yos,os,hyos, zuumos,吗】:these words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Meuu
you
da
not
hei
go
vuek
do
gong
work
hos?
Q
"Don't you go to work?"
Hwanneix
today
na
he
da
not
buuen
come
yos.
Q
"Isn't he coming today?"
Neix
this
man
is
guu meuu
yours
os?
Q
"Is this yours?"
Na
he
man
is
pasghueng
younger brother
meuu
your
hyos?
Q
"Is he your younger brother?"
Meuu
You
beuu
come back
ngop
think
dhang
face
hou
my
vi
accent
zuumos?
Q
"You came back (because) you are thinking of me?"
B. 【huux,hauux,呢,呀】:these words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,
Meuu
you
caty
buy
gong
stuff
meshes
what
huux?
Q
"What do you buy?"
Meuu
you
uuras
who
hauux?
Q
"Who are you?"
C. 【nex/nix,yax,呢,呀】:these words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Gha
we
uengxtoengs
everyone
kweis
AUX
caep
carry by hands
cas
or
caem
carry or shoulders
nix?
Q
"Do we carry (it) with our hands or carry (it) on our shoulders?"
Neix
this
guu asras
whose
yax?
Q
"Whose is this?"
D. 【zuuras/cuusras,吗】:these words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,
Hwanneix
today
hou
I
uengx
and
na
he
kweis
auxiliary
hei
go,
Damxax,
Sanya
meuu
you
loms
again
da
not
hei
go
zuuras?
Q
"Today I'm going to Sanya with him, aren't you going?"
Kun
they
uengxtoengs
everyone
vuek
do
gong,
work
meuu
you
oms
but
da
not
vuek
do
cuusras?
Q
"Everyone is working, but why aren't you?"
E. 【zuurasve,bas/vixbas,吧,了吧】:these words express a possibility, e.g.,
Na
he
buuen
come
zuurasve?
Q
"Did he come?"
meuu
you
bhaeis
already
cuis
burn
ang
field
vixbas?
Q
"Did you already burn the field?"
meuu
you
kweis
AUX
hei
go
bas?
Q
"Are you going to go?"
There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo".
A. 【as,吧,啊】:this word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,
Meuuda
you
dzueis
look
gas
horse
fa
we
as!
IMP
"Look at our horses!"
Goms
then
dhonghauux
like that
as!
IMP
"That's it!"
B. 【bas,啊,吧】:this word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,
Meuu
you
dheuu
take
bas!
IMP
"Take it!"
Meuu
you
dzuuns
quickly
hei
go
bas!
IMP
"Quickly go!"
Duuengx
give
hou
me
zuu
one
hom
CLF
ghaeix
cucurbita gourd
bas!
IMP
"Give me a gourd!"
C. 【bhislo,咯】:this word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,
Zoen
sleep
bhislo!
IMP
"Go to sleep!"
Vuek
do
dzuuns
quickly
bhislo!
IMP
"Do it quickly!"
Hansneix
now
bhaeis
already
zaux
have
caqias
script
gha
we
Hlai,
Li,
uengxtoengs
everyone
guulax
should
tuuen
out.
kaux
strength
o
learn
bhislo!
IMP!
"Now that we Li already have a script, we should do our best to learn it!"
Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,
Meuu
You
hluumsghweuu
NEG-know
mos?
Q?
Neix
This
man
is
caqias
script
Hlai
Li
bhislo!
accent!
"Don't you know? This is Li people's script!"
D. 【res,吧】:the usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g.,
Meuuda
you
dzuuns
quickly
lax
eat
res!
IMP
"Come on, eat quickly!"
Hluet
enter
buuen
come
res!
IMP
"Come on in!"
Hyaeu
drink
dhe
tea
res!
IMP
"Drink (some) tea!"
Exclamatory mood
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g.,
Meuu
you
rien
say
dhiu
right
dhat
very
ho!
EXCM
"You're right!"
Yous
don't
taeixtoengs
fight each other
a!
EXCM
"Don't fight!"
Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,
O!
EXCM
Pasceuus
guy
hauux
that
hleny
good
dhat
very
o!
EXCM
"Ah! That young man is great!"
Aei!
EXCM
Bhaeis
already
poens
break
he.
accent
"Oh! It's broken."
Aiho!
EXCM
Cok
pain
baisias
very much
ho!
EXCM
"Oh! It's painful!"
[35][36]
Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,
Aidza!
Ouch!
Cok
Pain
raeis
intestines
ha!
accent
Oh dear! What stomach pains!"
Aiho!
Ouch!
Cok
Pain
baisias
very much
ho!
accent
"Oh, what great pain!"
Ihyos!
Ah!
Noms
River
bhaeis
already
long
big
bhe!
accent
"Yo! The water has gone up!"
Isdzos!
Mmm!
Neix
This
man
is
meshes?
what
"Oh, what is this?"
However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,
Euu,
Yes,
dhonghauux
that
(is)
bhe!
accent
"Yes, just like that!"
Na
He
bhaeis
already
euu
agree
cas
or
da?
not
"Did he already agree or not?"
Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds,e.g.,
Hluuek'ueng
Girl
raeux
laugh
hihi
onomatopoeia
dhuus
in
hauux.
there
"The girl laughed there."
Fas
sky
fun
rain
fosfos
onomatopoeia
bhe.
accent
"It is raining."
Gaet
Frog(with-long-legs)
fan
then
loms
again
roeng,
call
"Beets!
onomatopoeia
Beets!
onomatopoeia
Beets!"
onomatopoeia
"The frog called again, "Ribbit! Ribbit! Ribbit!"
More onomatopoeic words below:
Phrases in the Hlai language
The construction of phrases and their basic rules in Hlai[37][38]
There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.
1. Coordinative phrases
The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not.
父
bais
mother
母
pas
father
"parents"
鸡
kai
chicken
和
ku/uengx
and
鸭
eps
duck
"chicken and duck"
Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions.
taeix
beat
loms
and
cas
scold
"beat and scold"
fas
sour
hloeis
and
ghety
hot
"sour and hot"
However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions.
往
hei
go
往
hei
go
返
luueng
back
返
luueng
back
"go back and forth"
红
kiu
green
红
kiu
green
绿
ghaens
red
绿
ghaens
red
"green and red"
2. Attribute phrases
The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.
A. Noun as the head word
Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.
a. Noun (the head word) + noun
猪
aek
meat
肉
bou
pig
"pork"
牛
hau
horn
角
duis
water buffalo
"buffalo's horn"
b. Noun + adjective
noms
water
ghan
cold
"cold water"
veengs
shirt/top
baen
new
"new shirt/top"
The word "enyx" (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
enyx
small
veengs
shirt/top
"kid's shirt (it also means brassiere)"
enyx
small
duis
water buffalo
"calf (young water buffalo)"
enyx
small
dziengx
finger
"little finger (pinkie)"
c. Noun+ verb
fok
place
gaux
sleep
"a place for sleeping"
daty
bird
bheny
fly
"(a) flying bird(s)"
d. Noun+ pronoun
pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
"my older brother"
blongs
house
hauux
that
"that house"
e. Number + classifier + Noun (the head word)
The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word.
fus
three
zuen
CL
aeudza
old man
"three old men"
hlaus
two
hom
CL
dzuuem
egg
"two eggs"
f. Attribute phrases influenced by Chinese
Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,
Noun + noun (the head word)
Dongxgoknaengsmiens
China
people
"Chinese people" Mismatch in the number of words between lines: 1 word(s) in line 1, 2 word(s) in line 2 (help);
Adjective + noun (the head word)
hiuxdius
superior
odex
student
"superior student"
Verb + noun (the head word)
goeisgiet
resolve
muixdhoeis
problem
"resolving (the) problem"
B. Verb as the head word
The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,
a. Adverb + verb
da
not
oep
love/like
"don't like"
bhaeis
already
lax
eat
"already ate"
yous
Don't
rien
say
"don't say"
naeus
just
buuen
come
"just came"
ais
not willing to
lax
eat
"not willing to eat"
b. Adjective + verb
dzuuns
quick
rien
say
"(be)quick (to) say(it)" (it means out with it)
hleny
good
lax
eat
good (to) eat" (it means delicious)
gin
hurry
lax
eat
"busy eating"
c. Noun + verb
cai
wood
vuek
make
"made of wood"
uuhaux
tomorrow
hei
go
"(will) go tomorrow"
d. Verb + verb (the head word)
oep
like
lax
eat
"like to eat"
hei
go
dzok
steal
"go (and) steal"
gaux
lie down
dzueis
look
"reading lying down"
e. Disyllabic/doubled adjective + verb (the head word), or
Verb (the head word) + disyllabic/doubled adjective
dais dais fei= fei dais dais
slow slow walk
"慢慢走,walk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)
dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux dzuuns dzuuns
quick quick read
"快快读,read quickly"
hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny
good good say
"好好说,say (it) nicely"
liloek vuek= vuek liloek
dark do
"漆黑做,do (it in) darkness"
f. Pronoun + verb (the head word), or Verb (the head word) + Number
dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux
like that sew
"那样缝,sew like that"
dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?
how do
"怎么做?How is it to be done?"
qiras hei? = hei qiras?
When go
"何时走?When (is it time to) go?"
g. Number+ verb (the head word), or Verb (the head word) + Number
zuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis
one classifier go
"去一趟,(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
fus faei taeix= taeix fus faei
three classifier beat
"打三下,beat (something) three times"
zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx
one classifier one classifier plant
"一棵一棵地种,plant one by one"
zuu boms zuu boms lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms
one classifier one classifier eat
"一口一口地吃,eat one (bite) at a time"
C. Adjective as the head word
The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
a. Adjective+ adjective (the head word)
hleny
good
coem
sharp
"so sharp"
reek
bad
coem
sharp
"not sharp"
b. Adverb + adjective (the head word)
duix
most
reek
bad
"worst"
bhaeis
already
reek
bad
"already (gone) bad"
Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (真, 很, really, very) or "baisias" (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,
c. Adjective (the head word) + adverb
dzuuns
quick
dhat
very
"very quick"
hleny
good
baisias
very much
"very good"
Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,
d. Adjective (the head word) + demonstrative pronoun
vaet
poor
neix
this
"this poor"
long
big
dhongneix
like this
"this big"
peek
high
dhonghauux
like that
"that high"
e. Adjective (the head word) + interrogative pronoun
bheeng
wide
ras?
How?
"How wide?"
hloei
many/much
ras?
how?
"How many/much?"
f. Adjective (the head word) + noun
long
big
nyiu
bull
"big as a bull"
bheeng
wide
laengs
sea
"wide as the sea"
The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (像, as, like) or "bhaen" (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,
long
big
(dhong)
as
nyiu
bull
"big as a bull"
3. Verb-object phrases
The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,
A. Verb (the head word) + noun (object)
lax
eat
tax
rice
"eat rice (the meaning is to eat)"
dzueis
look
qias
book
"read book (the meaning is to read)"
B. Verb (the head word) + pronoun (object)
dheuu
take
hauux
that
"take that one"
ngwaety
call
meuu
you
"(I'll) call you"
bhiek
carry (something) on shoulder
meshes
what?
"carry what"
C. Verb (the head word) + verb (object)
dhas
fear
rien
say
"怕说,fears to say"
auux
dare
vuuek
do
"dare to do (something)"
D. Verb (the head word) + number (object)
caty
buy
zuu
one
hom
CL
"buy one"
lax
eat
fus
three
waeu
CL
"eat three bowls (of food)"
E. Verbal adjective (the head word) + noun (object)
Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,
leis
thin
aeu
people
"(makes) people thin"
ghweis
fat
aeu
people
"(makes) people fat"
4. Complement phrases
The Complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.
A. Verb-complement phrase
The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, ora number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.
a. Verb (the head word) + verb (complement)
fei
walk
hluet
go into
"walk in"
dheuu
take
buuen
come
"plan to come"
b. Verb (the head word) + adjective (complement)
lax
eat
kuuem
full
"ate (until) full (stuffed)"
riemx
fix
hleny
good
"fixed well"
roengx
cook
fui
cooked
"cooked thoroughly"
c. Verb (the head word) + number (complement)
fei
walk
zuu
one
guen
CL
"(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
fun
run
ba
five
hwan
day
ba
five
cop
night
"(it) rained five days and five nights"
d. Verb (the head word) + noun (complement)
In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
bhaeis
already
hlaeux
die
duis
water buffalo
he.
accent
"The water buffalo already died."
B. Adjective-complement phrase
The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word.
a. Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + verb (complement)
kaeix
cold
dhaens
as to
nyan
shiver
"(so) cold as to shiiver"
reek
bad
haeis
smell
dhaens
as to
asras
who
ruus
all
ais
not willing to
dheuu
take
"(so) foul smelling as to not one is willing to take (it)"
b. Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + adjective (complement)
gheuu
thin
dhaens
as to
ghau
transparency
"(so) thin as to be transparent"
fui
cooked
dhaens
as to
ghaens
red
"(so) cooked (hot) as to become red"
c. Adjective(the head word) + number (complement)
long
big
fus
three
boux
CL/year
"three years older"
hloei
many
zuu
one
hom
CL
"one more"
peek
high
zuutom
half
ghwous
head
"a half-head taller"
d. Adjective (the head word) + noun (complement)
In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
Long
big
hwoet
wind
bhe!
accent
"The wind (is) strong!"
Cok
hurt
bok
stomach
dhat
very
lo!
accent
"A stomachache! (very painful)"
5. Subject-predicate phrases
This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.
Wenysnaeis
no
aeu
people
rien
say
na
he
reek.
bad
"No one said he (is) bad."
Uengxtoengs
everyone
ruus
all
rien
say
gong
stuff
neix
this
fas.
sour
"Everyone (all) says this stuff (is) sour."
Daty
bird
bheny
fly
lo.
accent
"Birds have flown (away)."
Na
he
buuen
come
lo.
accent
"He has come."
The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:
Sentence construction and the basic rules[39][40]
blongs
house
dhuus
in/exist
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
hauux
that
"the house that (is) on the bank of the river"
pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
uengx
and
pasghueng
younger brother
meuu
your
my older brother and your younger brother
The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,
Blongs
house
hauux
that
dhuus
in/exist
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
hauux.
that
"That house (is) on the bank of that river."
Pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
uengx
and
pasghueng
younger brother
meuu
your
ngan
also
gaengxnaengs.
worker
"My older brother and your younger brother (are) both workers."
The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence.These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.
Subjects
The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject.
Predicates
The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.
Passive voice
In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g.,
Kai
Chicken
ghoems
by
dauxmuty
fox
gaeny
bite
bhe.
accent
"A chicken was bit by a fox."
Bhous
Village
hauux
that
ghoems
by
fei
fire
cuis
burn
lo.
accent
"That village was burned by fire."
Objects
An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,
Double objects (with giving-receiving relation)
The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,
Baisdza
Mother
duuengx
give
na
her
lax
auxiliary word
zuu
one
ruet
CL
riens.
skirt
"Mother gave her a skirt."
Hou
I
dun
teach
meuu
you
lax
auxiliary word
tun
language
Hlai.
Li
"I teach you the Li lauguage."
Pashlaus
older brother
duuengx
give
pasghueng
younger brother
dheuu
auxiliary
zuu
one
hom
CL
zuucoeis.
litchi
"The older brother gave (his) younger brother a litchi (a kind of fruit)."
The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Baisdza
Mother
caep
carry
noms
water
duuengx
give
pasghueng.
younger brother
"The mother carried water (to) give to the younger brother."
Hluuekkauus
Older sister
roengx
cook
tax
rice
duuengx
give
baisghueng.
younger sister
"The older sister cooked rice (to) give to the younger sister."
Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,
Na
He
duuengx
give
veengs
shirt/top
duuengx
give
hou.
me
"He gave a shirt to me."
Pasdza
Father
da
not
duuengx
give
nomstaengs
sugar
duuengx
give
dhes.
me
"(My) Father did not give me sugar."
When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,
Meuu
You
duuengx
give
na
him
dheuu.
auxiliary word
"You give it to him."
Zuu
One
pienx
CL
enyx
small
gas
knife
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
lax.
auxiliary word
"This small knife (was) given (to) you."
Zuu
One
lang
CL
kai
chicken
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
lax.
auxiliary word
"This chicken (was) given (to) you."
Double objects (without giving-receiving relation)
Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,
Hou reengs meuu lax.
I move you auxiliary word (help)
"我帮你搬,I will help you (to) move."
Meuu laix na lax.
You plow him auxiliary word (help)
"你帮他犁田,You help him (to) plow."
Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax.
Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help)
"母亲帮女儿挑,A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)."
The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g.,
Taeix dhes lax tax.
Put me auxiliary word (help) rice
"帮我打饭,Please help get me (some) rice."
Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai.
I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable
"我帮你买菜,I'll help you buy (some) vegetables."
Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai.
He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower
"他说他会帮你给花浇水,He said he would help you water the flowers."
Complement
There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,
A. Sequential complement
Dzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe.
Snake by hit die accent
"蛇被打死了,The snake was beaten to death by (someone)."
Hou bhaeis lax kuuem he.
I already eat full accent
"我已经吃饱了,I have already eaten (rice) and am full."
Na lax tax kuuem he.
He eat rice full accent
"他吃饱饭了,He ate and is full."
If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,
Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms.
He pull preposition go out sweat
"他拉到出汗,He pulled until he sweat."
Duis ghoux dhaens ngaeix noms hauux.
Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that
"水牛跑到那河边,The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."
Veengs neix baen dhaens asras ruus qieng cat.
shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear
"这衣服新到谁都想穿,This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it."
B. Directional complement
The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,
a. Directional complement without an object
Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"他拿来了,He brought something here."
Duis ghoux hei lo!
Water buffalo run go accent
"水牛跑去了,The water buffalo ran (away)."
Aeudza buuen luueng bhe
Old man come go back accent
"老人回来了,The old man came back."
Uengxtoengs caep hei beuu bhe
Everyone carry go come back accent
"大家挑回去了,Everyone carried (something) back (home)."
Na ais caus. luei ba.
He is not willing to come down down accent
"他不愿意走下来吧,He is not willing to come down."
Na ghoux tuuen hos?
He run go out accent of question
"他跑出来了吗?Did he run out (from there)?"
b. Directional complement with an object
These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g.,
Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix.
Rabbit jump over one classifier stream
"兔子跳过一条小沟,The rabbit jumped over a stream."
Uengxtoengs caem kaen hwous max.
Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that
"大家抬到那山上,Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain."
Diu bhaeis ghoux hluet cuengs he.
Mouse already run go into hole accent
"老鼠已经跑进洞,The mouse already ran into the hole."
C. Quantitative complement
The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,
a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier)
Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis.
I and you go one classifier
"我和你去一趟,I and you (can) go (there)."
Kai bhaeis hyoen fus dzax bhe.
Chicken already crow three classifier accent
"鸡已经啼三遍了,The rooster has already crowed three times."
b. Verb + (number + time classifier)
Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he.
We already learn one year/classifier accent
"我们已经学一年了,We (have) already studied for one year."
Na bhaeis doengs fus hwan he.
He already stay three day accent
"他已经住三天了,He (has) already stayed (for) three days."
Na beuu blongs zaux hlaus nyaen bhe.
He go back home have two month accent
"他回家有两个月了,He has been home for two months now."
c. Adjective + (number + classifier)
Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit.
House this high/tall than house that a little bit
"这房子比那房子高一点,This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."
Waeu neix hloei fus hom.
Bowl this more three classifier
"这碗多三个,This bowl (has) three extra (ones)."
5. Attribute
The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,
A. Noun (head word) + noun (attribute)
aek duis
meat water buffalo
"牛肉,beef"
feekx hweek
skin banana
"香蕉皮,banana peel"
coem coeis
fruit litchi
"荔枝果,litchi (fruit)"
dzuuem kai
egg chicken
"鸡蛋,chicken egg"
Na kueng rien tun Hlai.
He know say/speak language/word Li
"他会说黎话,He knows(how to) speak the Li's language."
Neix man bheuu cai.
This is leaf tree
"这是树叶,This is a tree's leaf."
B. Noun (head word) + adjective (attribute)
tau loek
pot black
"黑锅,black pot"
zuu fans veengs kaeu
one classifier shirt/top white
"一件白上衣,one white shirt"
noms neix noms ghan.
water this water cold
"这水是冷水,This water (is) cold water."
C. Noun (head word) + pronoun (attribute)
Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe.
We Li people have script self accent
"咱们黎族有自己的文字了,We, Li people, have our own script."
Hluuek na kweis hei zok Damxax.
Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya
"他姐姐要去三亚,His older sister is going to go to Sanya."
D. Number (attribute) + noun (head word)
Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max.
One classifier man in house that
"一个人在那边房子,A man (is) in that house."
Hlaus lang duis neix ghweis dhat dhat.
Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very
"这两头牛肥极了,These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat."
E. Noun (head word) + verb (attribute)
Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux.
In/at there no place lie down
"在那里没有地方睡,At that place, (there is) no place to sleep."
Toep laty ghoux ruus zeuu loem.
Even wild boar run also shoot right
"连跑的野猪也射中,He shot even a running wild boar right on."
Neix gong lax fa.
This stuff eat our
"这是我们吃的东西,This (is) our food ."
F. Noun (head word) + phrase (attribute)
veengs dhuus blongs hauux
shirt/top in house that
"在那房子的衣服,the shirt (that is) in that house"
hluuekueng naeus buuen hauux
girl just come that
"那位刚来的姑娘,that girl (who) just came"
zuu lang duis lax gans kuuem
one classifier water buffalo eat grass full
"一只吃饱草的水牛,a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"
qi meuu buuen hauux
time you come that
"你来的那个时候,that time (when) you came"
6. Adverbial
The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,
A. Adverbs as Adverbials
Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na oms da buuen zo.
He still not come accent
"他还没来呢,He has not come (yet)."
Hwanneix fas vaeu fous hos.
Today sky mosthot accent
"今天天气很热啊,Today the weather (is) very hot."
Qi lax tax yous rien tun!
Time eat rice don't say/speak word
"吃饭时别说话!It is eating time, don't talk!"
Zuu lang aeu neix da hlenymuuen.
One classifier man this not beautiful
"这个人不漂亮!This person (is) not beautiful."
Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na buuen dhat.
He come really
"他真的来了,He really came."
Na vuek luueng.
He do back
"他重新做,He (is) re-doing (it)."
Gong neix hleny dhatdhat.
Stuff this good really
"这东西真好,This is really good stuff."
Maeis neix dheeng baisias.
Sugarcane this sweet very
"这甘蔗非常甜,This sugarcane (is) very sweet."
B. Adjectives as Adverbials
Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,
reek coem
bad/not so sharp
"不锋利,not so sharp"
Gas neix hleny coem hos!
Long knife this good/so sharp accent!
"这把刀好快啊!This knife is (so) sharp!"
Dais fei as, baisdza!
Slow walk accent, old lady!
"慢走啊,老大娘,Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."
Meuu dzuuns buuen bhe!
You quick come accent
"你快来吧,(You) quick(ly) come."
If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bhe!
You come quick quick accent
"你快快来吧,(You) come double quick."
C. Verbs as Adverbials
When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Na ngais rien.
He/she cry say
"她哭着说,She said (it while) crying."
Meuu dzok dzueis meshes?
You steal/secretly look what
"你偷看什么?What are you secretly looking at?"
Na oep lax zuuyunx.
He like eat coconut
"他爱吃椰子,He likes to eat coconuts."
D. Nouns as Adverbials
When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Neix man cai vuek
This is tree make
"这是木制的,This is made of wood."
Meuu ashaux hei hyos?
You tomorrow go question accent
"你明天去吗?Are you going tomorrow?"
E. Pronouns as Adverbials
When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,
Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix.
He like this say = He say like this
"他这样说,He said (it) like this."
Gong neix dhongras vuek = Gong neix vuek dhongras
work this how do = work this do how
"这活儿怎样做?How (is) this work done?"
Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras
When arrive = arrive when
"何时到?When (will he) arrive?"
However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,
Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux.
Region this wide/vast like that/so
"这地方那么宽,This region (is) so vast."
Zuu zuen aeu neix hleny dhonghauux.
One classififer man this good/kind like that/so
"这个人那么好,This man (is) so good."
Zuu dhanx dhoei neix daeus ras?
One classififer rope this long how?
"这一条绳子有多长?How long (is) this rope?"
F. Prepositional phrases as Adverbial
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,
Ia ba gaenys
by dog bite
"被狗咬,bit by a dog"
dheuu na taeix
by him hit
"被他打,hit by him"
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (从, by), "dhuus" (在, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (和, and),or "nyuek" (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,
tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous
From that one classifier road go up mountain
"从这一条路上山,by that road (one can) go up the mountain"
toek tuuen deuu cai
drop from on tree
"从树上掉下来,drop from the tree"
dhuus blongs dzoeng meuu = dzoeng meuu dhuus blongs
at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home
"在家等你,(I'll) wait for you at home."
ku na rien = rien ku na
to him say = say to him
"对他说,say to him"
uengx meuu hei= hei uengx meuu
With you go = go with you
"同你去,(I'll) go with you."
meuu doengs nyuek na. = meuu nyuek na doengs.
You play with/and him = You with/and him play
"你和他玩,You play with him."
Some prepositions, like "bhi" (比, than/compare), "dhuas" (过, than), "dhong" (同/像/如, same/be like), or "bhaen" (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,
Before the adjective head word:
Meuu bhi dhes peek.
You than/compare me tall
"你比我高,You (are) taller than me."
After the adjective head word:
Meuu peek dhuas na.
You tall than him
"你高过他,You (are) taller than him."
Ba long dhuas mieux.
Dog big than cat
"狗大过猫,A dog (is) bigger than a cat."
Before or after the adjective head word:
hloek bhaen laengs
deep like/as sea
"像海一样深,as deep as the sea."
enyx dhong guty
small like/as needle
"像针一样小,as small as a needle."
Kai neix bhaen eps ghweis. = Kai neix ghweis bhaen eps.
Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck
"这只鸡像鸭一样肥,This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck."
Sentence patterns and types[41][42]
Sentence patterns and their basic rules
1. Simple sentence
The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,
A. Subject-predicate sentences
Fas fun lo.
sky rain accent
"天要下雨了,It's going to rain."
Na hei bhe.
He go accent
"他去了,He went."
Enyxlauux raeu he.
Child laugh accent
"小孩笑了,(The) child(ren) laughed."
The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,
(subject + predicate + object)
Hou lax tax.
I eat rice
"我吃饭,I eat rice."
(subject + predicate + complement)
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"他拿来了,He brought (it with him)."
(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)
Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs.
Child already walk into house
"小孩走进屋子,(The) child(ren) walked into the house."
B. No subject sentences
This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,
Tuut dhoei bhe.
Break rope accent
"断绳了,The rope (is) broken."
Hloei aeu dhat.
Many people really/very
"人真多,(There are) so many people."
Hlaeux hlai bhe.
Die fish accent
"鱼死了,The fish died."
C. One word sentence
Asras?
Who?
"谁?Who?"
Ahyo!
Oh my!
"哎哟!Oh my!"
A: "Meuu kweis da kweis?" B: "Kweis."
You be willing to NEG be willing to be willing to
A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.'
A: 你愿意不愿意?B:愿意
2. Compound sentences
There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,
A. Coordinate compound sentences
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.
a. The parallel relationship
Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.
Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang.
I will go have a meeting he will go field
"我要去开会,他要去山栏地,I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."
Coem hweek hou ngan lax dhuas,
Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense
zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas.
coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense
"香蕉我吃过,椰子我也吃过,I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."
Na hoen vuek veengs vuek riens,
He/she know how to do shirt do skirt
hoen vuek ang vuek dax.
know how to do hilly field do plain field
"她能做衣服做裙子,能耕田种地,She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields."
b. The progressive relationship
The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (又, still),"oms" (还, 却, yet),"ruus" (都, all), "koms" (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacaux…koms/uuloms…"(不但...而且...,not only... but also...), e.g.,
Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu.
Sky already late he still not come back
"天已经晚了,他还不回来,It was late, and he still (had) not come back."
Fas oms da dhenys, na bhaeis hei ang he.
Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent
"天尚未亮,他已经去田里了,It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."
Meuuda man Moei, fa man Hlai, gha ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.
You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China
"你们是汉族,我们是黎族,咱们都是中国人,You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."
Na kueng rien tun Hlai,
He know how to speak language/word Li
kueng rien koms tun Moei.
know how to speak also/even language/word Han
"他会说黎话,也会说汉话,He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."
hou dacaux dzueis bhaeis, uuloms taeis bhaeis.
I not only read finished, but also write finished
"我不仅看完了,而且写完了,Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing."
c. The optional relationship
The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,
Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen.
Old brother your come, or younger brother your come
"你哥哥来,还是你弟弟来,(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."
Lax man cuusnaus lax tax?
Eat potato or eat rice
"吃白薯还是米饭?Do you eat potatoes or rice?"
Meuu rien ku na, dagoms rien ku hou.
You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me
"你对他说,或者告诉我,You tell him, or tell me."
B. Subordinate compound sentences
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.
a. The transitional relationship
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,
Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix.
Yesterday I go to him, but he go street
"昨天我到他家去,但是他已经上街去了,Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."
Na kweis vuek tun, oms dhas zuugheidhang.
She want sing a song, but fear shame
"她想唱歌,又怕害羞,She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."
Kweis o goms o dhat, dagoms beuu blongs.
Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home
"要学就真正地学,不然就回家去,(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home."
b. The conditional relationship
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (如果, if), "dalunx" (无论, no matter what), e.g.,
Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.
no matter what he say how, I also go
"不管他怎样说,我都去,No matter what he says, I'll also go."
Laeis na da buuen, dhes fan hei gongx na.
If he not come, I then go find him
"如果他不来,我就去找他,If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."
Laeis zaux tax, hou goms lax.
If have/there is rice, I then eat
"如果有饭,我就吃,If there is rice, then I (will) eat."
Laeis na euu, meuu goms waeix ku hou bas.
If he agree, you then tell to me accent
"如果他答应,你就告诉我吧,If he agrees, then (you) tell me."
Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,
Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien.
Out strength do work, must have money have money
"努力工作,一定会有金钱,(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money."
c. The causal relationship
Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Fas fun yous hei,dagoms ia cok.
Sky rain don't go otherwise gain/get sickness
"天下雨了,别去,不然要得病,It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."
Dhes da hei, hans dhes cok bhe.
I not go because I sick accent
"我不去,因为我病了,I'm not going because I'm sick."
Hou beuu bat dhoei, hans tuut bhaeis.
I come back take rope, because break totally
"我回来拿绳子,因为全断了,I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken."
Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,
Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx.
Success, no matter what much price/cost we also give
"能成功的话,那么多少钱我们都给,(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs."
When the loan words "ienxuis…dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,
Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek.
Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high
"因为今年天旱,所以产量不太高,Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much."
C. Compressed compound sentences
In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.
Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes.
I tell you do what then do what
"我叫你做什么就做什么,Whatever I tell you to do, do (it)."
Hou kweis rien oms dhas.
I want say but fear
"我想说又害怕,I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."
Na faets ngop faets hlenyvis.
He more... think more... happy
"他越想越高兴,The more he thinks the more happy he is."
Bou neix luuengx bhoux luuengx ghweis.
Pig this more... feed more... fat
"这只猪越喂越肥,The more this pig is fed the fatter it is."
Na lax vuek lax dzuuns.
He more... do more... fast
"他越做越快,The more he works the faster he gets/becomes."
Aeu ceeng buuen ceeng hloei.
He more... come more... many
"人越来越多,The people coming (are) more and more."
Hlai Sentence Types and their basic rules[43][44]
According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.
A. Affirmative sentence
Hou kweis hei ang.
I will go hilly field
"我要去山栏地,I will go to the hilly field."
Neix man veengs na.
This is shirt/top her/his
"这是他/她的衣服,This is her/his shirt/top."
Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,
Neix veengs na.
This shirt/top her/his
"这是他/她的衣服,This (is) her/his shirt/top."
B. Negative sentence
Neix ghwaix veengs na.
This is not shirt/top her/his
"这不是他/她的衣服,This is not her/his shirt."
Na da buuen zo.
He not come accent
"他还没来呢,He has not come yet."
2. Interrogative sentence
A. Using interrogative pronouns
There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (谁, who?), "meshes" (什么, what?), "dhongras" (怎样, how?), "ras" (哪,如何, where? which? how?), "qiras" (何时, when?), and "hloeiras" (多少, How much/many?), e.g.,
Neix veengs asras?
This shirt/top who?
"这是谁的衣服,Whose shirt is this?"
Uuras uengx hou hei?
Who with me go?
"谁跟我去?Who(will) go with me?"
Neix man meshes?
This is what?
"这是什么?What is this?"
Vuek dhongras naus dhiu?
Do how just right?
"怎么样做才好?How should it be done, so that it will be done right?"
Meuu hei zok ras?
You go to/toward where?
"你去哪儿?Where are you heading?"
Na qiras buuen?
He when come?
"他何时来?When (will) he come?"
zaux hloeiras zuen uucok?
Have how many classifier sick
"有几个病号?How many (people) are sick?"
B. Using interrogative accent words
These questions require an answer: "Yes or no".
Ghwaix na bas?
Is not him accent
"不是他吧?It is not him, right?"
Neix guu meuu hos?
This belong to you accent
"这是你的吗?Does this belong to you?"
Meuu bhaeis lax tax hixhos?
You already eat rice accent
"你已经吃过饭了吗?Did you already eat (rice)?"
(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
C. Using negation words ("da")
Meuu kweis hei da?
You will go NEG?
"你要去吗?Won't you go?"
Meuu kweis da?
You be willing to NEG?
"你愿意吗?Aren't you willing?"
Meuu kweis laeis hisdhop da?
You want see movie NEG?
"你要看电影吗?Don't you want to see a movie?"
Gong neix hleny da?
Stuff this good NEG?
"这东西好吗?Isn't this stuff good?"
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da?
You want take or not?
"你想拿吗?Do you want to take (it) or not?"
Meuu bhaeis lax cuus da?
You already eat or not?
"你已经吃了吗?Have you already eaten or not?"
Veengs neix hleny cas da?
shirt/top this good or not?
"这件衣服好吗?Is this shirt/top good or not?"
D. Using conjunction words ("cuus/cas")
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu dheuu cuus ais?
You want or don't want?
"你要不要?Do you want (it) or not?"
Fa caem cuus bhiek?
We carry with hands or carry on shoulders?
"我们抬还是扛?Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"
Dhat cas tuas?
Genuine/real/true or false/fake?
"真的还是假的?Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?"
Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Na hei cuusnaus hou hei?
He go or I go?
"他去还是我去?Will he go or should I go?"
3. Imperative sentence
When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,
Buuen!
Come
"来!Come!"
Uuhaux laus zuucoeis bas.
tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent
"明天摘荔枝吧!Tomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"
Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen res!
Everyone quickly come accent
"大家快来吧!Everyone, come quickly!"
(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (别, don't) is used.
Yous vuek!
Don't do
"别做!Quit doing that!"
4. Exclamatory sentence
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings.
A. An accented word in one word sentence
Euu! Hauux bhe!
Yes! That is (it)!
"嗯!是!Yes! That's it!"
Aei! Dhongras vuek naus hleny?
Oh my! How do just/then good
"哎哟!怎么做才好?Oh my! What's a good way to do this?"
B. An accented word follows one word or one phrase
Cok ho!
Pain accent
"疼啊!Ouch!"
Hleny hloei ho!
good/so many accent
"好多啊!So many!"
C. An accented word at the end of a sentence
Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!
Oh my! Poor accent
"哎哟!可惜啊!Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!"
Tau bhaeis poens a!
Pot already break accent
"锅已经破了!The pot broke!"
Bheuucai neix hleny lax ho!
Vegetable this good eat accent
"这菜好吃啊!This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"
Noms neix ghan a!
Water this cold accent
"这水凉啊!This water is cold!"
(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Influence of Chinese grammar[45][46]
Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.
Attribute phrases
Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,
When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,
When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,
Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g.,
新
dienx
new
中国
Dongxgok
China
"new China"
新
dienx
new
裙子
gun
skirt
"new skirt"
大
dhuax
big
救星
giuscex
savior
"great savior"
However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,
Dongxgok
China
baen
new
"new China"
neix
DEM.this
man
is
gun
skirt
baen.
new
"This is a new skirt."
giuscex
savior
long
big
"great savior"
Verb-object-complement phrases
When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,
Interrogative sentences
The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,
你
Meuu
You
去
hei
go
不
da
NEG
去?
hei?
go
"Are you going?"
The possessive auxiliary word gaeis
The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,
北京
Bhakgengs
Beijing
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
颐和园
Ihwashueis
the name of emperor's Summer Palace
"Beijing's Summer Palace"
海南
Haeisnaems
Hainan
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
乐东
Lokdhongs
Ledong
县
gwaeis
township
"Hainan's Ledong township"
早晨
gaeusdhom
morning
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
太阳
cahwan
sun
"the morning's sun"
References
- ^ Yuan 1994, pp. 56–57.
- ^ a b Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Peng, Min-Sheng; He, Jun-Dong; Liu, Hai-Xin; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2011-02-15). "Tracing the legacy of the early Hainan Islanders – a perspective from mitochondrial DNA". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 11 (1): 46. Bibcode:2011BMCEE..11...46P. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-46. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 3048540. PMID 21324107.
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