Alpha-fetoprotein

AFP
Available structures
PDB	Ortholog search: PDBeRCSB
List of PDB id codes
	3MRK
Identifiers
Aliases	AFP, AFPD, FETA, HPalpha fetoprotein
External IDs	OMIM: 104150; MGI: 87951; HomoloGene: 36278; GeneCards: AFP; OMA:AFP - orthologs
Gene location (Human)
Chr.	Chromosome 4 (human)
End	73,456,174 bp
Gene location (Mouse)
Chr.	Chromosome 5 (mouse)
End	90,656,766 bp
RNA expression pattern
	Top expressed in
	testicle; gonad; right lobe of liver; human kidney; embryo; amniotic fluid; metanephros; right adrenal cortex; ascending aorta; lactiferous gland;
	Top expressed in
	human fetus; abdominal wall; fetal liver hematopoietic progenitor cell; yolk sac; epithelium of small intestine; atrioventricular valve; internal carotid artery; external carotid artery; migratory enteric neural crest cell; primitive streak;
	More reference expression data
	More reference expression data
Gene ontology
Molecular function	metal ion binding; protein binding;
Cellular component	extracellular region; extracellular space; cytoplasm; endoplasmic reticulum lumen;
Biological process	ovulation from ovarian follicle; SMAD protein signal transduction; sexual reproduction; progesterone metabolic process; post-translational protein modification;
	Sources:Amigo / QuickGO
Orthologs
	174
	11576
	ENSG00000081051
	ENSMUSG00000054932
	P02771
	P02772
	NM_001134NM_001354717
	NM_007423
	NP_001125NP_001341646
	NP_031449
	Wikidata
View/Edit Human	View/Edit Mouse

Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP,^[5]α-fetoprotein; also sometimes called alpha-1-fetoprotein, alpha-fetoglobulin, or alpha fetal protein) is a protein^[6]^[7] that in humans is encoded by the AFPgene.^[8]^[9] The AFP gene is located on the q arm of chromosome 4 (4q13.3).^[10] Maternal AFP serum level is used to screen for Down syndrome, neural tube defects, and other chromosomal abnormalities.^[11]

AFP is a major plasma protein produced by the yolk sac and the fetal liver during fetal development. It is thought to be the fetal analog of serum albumin. AFP binds to copper, nickel, fatty acids and bilirubin^[9] and is found in monomeric, dimeric and trimeric forms.

Structure

AFP is a glycoprotein of 591 amino acids^[12] and a carbohydrate moiety.^[13]

Function

The function of AFP in adult humans is unknown. AFP is the most abundant plasma protein found in the human fetus. In the fetus, AFP is produced by both the liver and the yolk sac. It is believed to function as a carrier protein (similar to albumin) that transports materials such as fatty acids to cells.^[14] Maternal plasma levels rise until the 32nd week of pregnancy, when they begin to decline.^[15] They decrease rapidly after birth. Normal adult levels in the newborn are usually reached by the age of 8 to 12 months. While the function in humans is unknown, in rodents it binds estradiol to prevent the transport of this hormone across the placenta to the fetus. The main function of this is to prevent the virilization of female fetuses. As human AFP does not bind estrogen, its function in humans is less clear.^[16] In human liver cancer, AFP is found to bind glypican-3 (GPC3), another oncofetal antigen.^[17]

The rodent AFP system can be overridden with massive injections of estrogen, which overwhelm the AFP system and will masculinize the fetus. The masculinizing effect of estrogens may seem counter-intuitive since estrogens are critical for the proper development of female secondary characteristics during puberty. However, this is not the case prenatally. Gonadal hormones from the testes, such as testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormone, are required to cause development of a phenotypic male. Without these hormones, the fetus will develop into a phenotypic female even if genetically XY. The conversion of testosterone into estradiol by aromatase in many tissues may be an important step in masculinization of that tissue.^[18]^[19] Masculinization of the brain is thought to occur both by conversion of testosterone into estradiol by aromatase, but also by de novo synthesis of estrogens within the brain.^[20]^[21] Thus, AFP may protect the fetus from maternal estradiol that would otherwise have a masculinizing effect on the fetus, but its exact role is still controversial.

Serum levels

Maternal

Fetal AFP levels can be monitored in the urine of pregnant women. Since AFP is quickly cleared from the mother's serum via her kidneys, maternal urine AFP correlates with fetal serum levels, although the maternal urine level is much lower than the fetal serum level. AFP levels rise until about week 32. Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP) screening is performed at 16 to 18 weeks of gestation.^[22] If MSAFP levels indicate an anomaly, amniocentesis may be offered to the patient.

Infants

The normal range of AFP for adults and children is variously reported as under 50, under 10, or under 5 ng/mL.^[23]^[24] At birth, normal infants have AFP levels four or more orders of magnitude above this normal range, that decreases to a normal range over the first year of life.^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]

During this time, the normal range of AFP levels spans approximately two orders of magnitude.^[27] Correct evaluation of abnormal AFP levels in infants must take into account these normal patterns.^[27]

Very high AFP levels may be subject to hooking (see tumor marker), which results in the level being reported significantly lower than the actual concentration.^[31] This is important for analysis of a series of AFP tumor marker tests, e.g. in the context of post-treatment early surveillance of cancer survivors, where the rate of decrease of AFP has diagnostic value.

Clinical significance

Measurement of AFP is generally used in two clinical contexts. First, it is measured in pregnant women through the analysis of maternal blood or amniotic fluid as a screening test for certain developmental abnormalities, such as aneuploidy. Second, serum AFP level is elevated in people with certain tumors, and so it is used as a biomarker to follow these diseases. Some of these diseases are listed below:

Developmental birth defects associated with elevated AFP
- Omphalocele^[32]^[33]
- Gastroschisis
- Neural tube defects: elevated α-fetoprotein in amniotic fluid and maternal serum^[34]^[35]
Tumors associated with elevated AFP
- Hepatocellular carcinoma^[34]^[36]
- Metastatic disease affecting the liver
- Nonseminomatous germ cell tumors
- Yolk sac tumor^[34]
Other conditions associated with elevated AFP
- Ataxia telangiectasia: elevated AFP is used as one factor in diagnosis^[37]

A peptide derived from AFP that is referred to as AFPep is claimed to possess anti-cancer properties.^[38]

In the treatment of testicular cancer it is paramount to differentiate seminomatous and nonseminomatous tumors. This is typically done pathologically after removal of the testicle and confirmed by tumor markers. However, if the pathology is pure seminoma but the AFP is elevated, the tumor is treated as a nonseminomatous tumor because it contains yolk sac (nonseminomatous) components.^[39]

References

1 2 3GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000081051–Ensembl, May 2017
1 2 3GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000054932–Ensembl, May 2017
↑"Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
↑"Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
↑Lawrence E. "AFP". Henderson's Dictionary of Biological Terms (10th ed.). p. 1. ISBN 0-470-21446-5.
↑Tomasi TB (1977). "Structure and function of alpha-fetoprotein". Annual Review of Medicine. 28: 453–465. doi:10.1146/annurev.me.28.020177.002321. PMID 67821.
↑Mizejewski GJ (May 2001). "Alpha-fetoprotein structure and function: relevance to isoforms, epitopes, and conformational variants". Experimental Biology and Medicine. 226 (5). Maywood, N.J.: 377–408. doi:10.1177/153537020122600503. PMID 11393167. S2CID 23763069.
↑Harper ME, Dugaiczyk A (July 1983). "Linkage of the evolutionarily-related serum albumin and alpha-fetoprotein genes within q11-22 of human chromosome 4". American Journal of Human Genetics. 35 (4): 565–572. PMC 1685723. PMID 6192711.
1 2"Entrez Gene: Alpha-fetoprotein".
↑"Entry - *104150 - ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN; AFP - OMIM". omim.org. Retrieved 2023-06-12.
↑Perry SE, Hockenberry MJ, Lowdermilk DL, Wilson D (2014). "8: Nursing Care of the Family During Pregnancy". Maternal Child Nursing Care (Fifth ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-323-09610-2. OCLC 858005418.
↑Pucci P, Siciliano R, Malorni A, Marino G, Tecce MF, Ceccarini C, et al. (May 1991). "Human alpha-fetoprotein primary structure: a mass spectrometric study". Biochemistry. 30 (20): 5061–5066. doi:10.1021/bi00234a032. PMID 1709810.
↑ Seregni E、Botti C、Bombardieri E (1995)。「アルファフェトプロテインアイソフォームの生化学的特性と臨床応用」。Anticancer Research。15 ( 4 ) : 1491–1499。PMID 7544570 。
↑ Chen H (1997). "アルファフェトプロテインの調節と活性". Critical Reviews in Eukaryotic Gene Expression . 7 ( 1– 2): 11– 41. doi : 10.1615/critreveukargeneexpr.v7.i1-2.20 . PMID 9034713 .
↑ Mizejewski Gj (2003) 正常および疾患状態における妊娠中および乳児期初期のアルファフェトプロテイン濃度; Obs Gyn Survey 804-82658(12):
↑ Carter CS (2002). "Neuroendocrinology of sexual behavior in the female" . In JB B (ed.). Behavioral Endocrinology . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. 88–89 . ISBN 978-0-262-52321-9。
↑ Zhang YF、Lin S、Xiao Z、Ho M (2024 年 10 月)。「グリピカン-3 相互作用パートナーのプロテオミクスアトラス: 肝臓がんにおける潜在的な免疫療法の標的としてのアルファフェトプロテインおよびその他の細胞外タンパク質の同定」。Proteoglycan Research。2 ( 4 )。doi : 10.1002 / pgr2.70004。ISSN 2832-3556。PMC 11737099。PMID 39822733。
↑ Nef S、Parada LF（2000年12月）。「男性の性発達におけるホルモン」。Genes & Development。14（24）：3075–3086。doi：10.1101/gad.843800。PMID 11124800。
↑ Elbrecht A、Smith RG (1992年1月)。「ニワトリのアロマターゼ酵素活性と性決定」。サイエンス。255 ( 5043 ) 。ニューヨーク州ニューヨーク: 467–470。Bibcode : 1992Sci...255..467E。doi : 10.1126/science.1734525。PMID 1734525。
↑ Bakker J、Baum MJ (2008年1月)。「女性特有の脳と行動の性分化におけるエストラジオールの役割」。Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology。29 ( 1): 1– 16。doi : 10.1016/ j.yfrne.2007.06.001。PMC 2373265。PMID 17720235。
↑Harding CF (Jun 2004). "Hormonal modulation of singing: hormonal modulation of the songbird brain and singing behavior". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1016 (1): 524–539. Bibcode:2004NYASA1016..524H. doi:10.1196/annals.1298.030. PMID 15313793. S2CID 12457330.
↑Perry SE (2018). "Chapter 10: Assessment of High Risk Pregnancy". In Perry SE (ed.). Maternal child nursing care : maternity pediatric (Sixth ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-323-54938-7. OCLC 999441854.
↑Ball D, Rose E, Alpert E (March 1992). "Alpha-fetoprotein levels in normal adults". The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 303 (3): 157–159. doi:10.1097/00000441-199203000-00004. PMID 1375809.
↑Sizaret P, Martel N, Tuyns A, Reynaud S (February 1977). "Mean alpha-fetoprotein values of 1,333 males over 15 years by age groups". Digestion. 15 (2): 97–103. doi:10.1159/000197990. PMID 65304.
↑Blohm ME, Vesterling-Hörner D, Calaminus G, Göbel U (1998). "Alpha 1-fetoprotein (AFP) reference values in infants up to 2 years of age". Pediatric Hematology and Oncology. 15 (2): 135–142. doi:10.3109/08880019809167228. PMID 9592840.
↑Ohama K, Nagase H, Ogino K, Tsuchida K, Tanaka M, Kubo M, et al. (October 1997). "Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels in normal children". European Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 7 (5): 267–269. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1071168. PMID 9402482. S2CID 260137699.
1 2 3 Lee PI、Chang MH、Chen DS、Lee CY（1989年1月）。「正常乳児の血清アルファフェトプロテイン値：回帰分析と性差の再評価」。小児消化器栄養学ジャーナル。8 （ 1）：19–25。doi：10.1097 / 00005176-198901000-00005。PMID 2471821。S2CID 21104946。
↑ブレア JI、カラチ R、グプタ R、シム FG、マカリスター EJ、ウェストン R (1987 年 4 月)。「乳児期における血漿アルファフェトプロテインの基準範囲：未熟児の影響」。小児期の病気のアーカイブ。62 (4): 362–369 .土井: 10.1136/adc.62.4.362。PMC 1778344。PMID 2439023。
↑ Bader D、Riskin A、Vafsi O、Tamir A、Peskin B、Israel N、et al. (2004 年 11 月)。「新生児早期におけるアルファフェトプロテイン - 大規模研究と文献レビュー」。Clinica Chimica Acta ; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry。349 ( 1–2 ) : 15–23。doi : 10.1016 / j.cccn.2004.06.020。PMID 15469851。
↑ Wu JT、Roan Y、Knight JA (1985)「正常乳児における血清AFP値：その臨床的および生理学的意義」Mizejewski GJ、Porter I (編)『アルファフェトプロテインと先天性疾患』ニューヨーク：Academic Press、pp. 111–122。
↑ Jassam N 、Jones CM、Briscoe T、Horner JH ( 2006年7月)。「フック効果：絶え間ない警戒の必要性」。Annals of Clinical Biochemistry。43 ( Pt 4): 314–317。doi: 10.1258 / 000456306777695726。PMID 16824284。
↑ Szabó M、Veress L、Münnich A、Papp Z（1990年9月）。「正常妊娠および胎児異常を伴う妊娠における羊水中のαフェトプロテイン濃度」。Orvosi Hetilap（ハンガリー語）。131 （ 39 ）：2139–2142。PMID 1699194。
↑ Rosen T 、D'Alton ME (2005 年 12 月)。「妊娠初期および中期におけるダウン症候群スクリーニング：データは何を示しているか？」Seminars in Perinatology。29 ( 6 ): 367–375。doi : 10.1053/j.semperi.2006.01.001。PMID 16533649。
1 2 3 Le, Tao. First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2013. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2013. Print.
↑ Bredaki FE、Poon LC、Birdir C、Escalante D、Nicolaides KH ( 2012)。「アルファフェトプロテインを用いた神経管欠損症の第一三半期スクリーニング」。Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy。31 ( 2 ) : 109–114。doi : 10.1159 / 000335677。PMID 22377693。S2CID 57465。
↑ Ertle J、Heider D、Wichert M、Keller B、Kueper R、Hilgard P、他。（2013年）。「α-フェトプロテインとデス-γ-カルボキシプロトロンビンの組み合わせは肝細胞癌の検出に優れています。」消化。87 (2): 121–131。土井: 10.1159/000346080。PMID 23406785。S2CID 25266129。
↑ Taylor AM、Byrd PJ (2005年10 月)。「毛細血管拡張性運動失調症の分子病理」。臨床病理学ジャーナル。58 ( 10 ): 1009–1015。doi : 10.1136/jcp.2005.026062。PMC 1770730。PMID 16189143。
↑メスフィン FB、ベネット JA、ジェイコブソン HI、朱 S、アンデルセン TT (2000 年 4 月)。「アルファフェトプロテイン由来抗エストロトロフィーオクタペプチド」。Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - 疾患の分子基盤。1501 (1): 33–43 .土井: 10.1016/S0925-4439(00)00008-9。PMID 10727847。
↑ Schmoldt A、Benthe HF、Haberland G (1975 年 9 月)。「ラット肝ミクロソームによるジギトキシン代謝」。生化学薬理学。24 ( 17): 1639–1641。doi : 10.1016 / 0006-2952(75) 90094-5。hdl : 10033 / 333424。PMID 10。

さらに読む

Nahon JL (May 1987). "The regulation of albumin and alpha-fetoprotein gene expression in mammals". Biochimie. 69 (5): 445–459. doi:10.1016/0300-9084(87)90082-4. PMID 2445387.
Tilghman SM (1989). "The structure and regulation of the alpha-fetoprotein and albumin genes". Oxford Surveys on Eukaryotic Genes. 2: 160–206. PMID 2474300.
Mizejewski GJ (Dec 2002). "Biological role of alpha-fetoprotein in cancer: prospects for anticancer therapy". Expert Review of Anticancer Therapy. 2 (6): 709–735. doi:10.1586/14737140.2.6.709. PMID 12503217. S2CID 8321005.
Yachnin S, Hsu R, Heinrikson RL, Miller JB (Aug 1977). "Studies on human alpha-fetoprotein. Isolation and characterization of monomeric and polymeric forms and amino-terminal sequence analysis". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 493 (2): 418–428. doi:10.1016/0005-2795(77)90198-2. PMID 70228.
Aoyagi Y, Ikenaka T, Ichida F (Oct 1977). "Comparative chemical structures of human alpha-fetoproteins from fetal serum and from ascites fluid of a patient with hepatoma". Cancer Research. 37 (10): 3663–3667. PMID 71198.
Aoyagi Y, Ikenaka T, Ichida F (Oct 1978). "Copper(II)-binding ability of human alpha-fetoprotein". Cancer Research. 38 (10): 3483–3486. PMID 80265.
Aoyagi Y, Ikenaka T, Ichida F (Sep 1979). "alpha-Fetoprotein as a carrier protein in plasma and its bilirubin-binding ability". Cancer Research. 39 (9): 3571–3574. PMID 89900.
Torres JM, Anel A, Uriel J (Mar 1992). "Alpha-fetoprotein-mediated uptake of fatty acids by human T lymphocytes". Journal of Cellular Physiology. 150 (3): 456–462. doi:10.1002/jcp.1041500305. PMID 1371512. S2CID 32015210.
Greenberg F、Faucett A、Rose E、Bancalari L、Kardon NB、Mizejewski G、他。 (1992 年 8 月)。「先天性アルファフェトプロテイン欠損症」。アメリカ産科婦人科学会誌。167 (2): 509–511 .土井: 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)91441-0。PMID 1379776。
Bansal V、Kumari K、Dixit A、Sahib MK (1990年7月)「ヒトαフェトプロテインとビリルビンの相互作用」Indian Journal of Experimental Biology . 28 (7): 697–698 . PMID 1703124 .
プッチ P、シチリアーノ R、マロルニ A、マリーノ G、テッチェ MF、チェッカリーニ C 他（1991年5月）。「ヒトα-フェトプロテインの一次構造: 質量分析研究」。生化学。30 (20): 5061–5066。土井: 10.1021/bi00234a032。PMID 1709810。
Liu MC、Yu S、Sy J、Redman CM、Lipmann F (1985年11月) 「ヒト肝癌細胞株HepG2由来タンパク質のチロシン硫酸化」米国科学アカデミー紀要82 ( 21 ): 7160–7164。Bibcode : 1985PNAS ... 82.7160L。doi : 10.1073 / pnas.82.21.7160。PMC 390808。PMID 2414772。
Gibbs PE、Zielinski R、Boyd C、Dugaiczyk A (1987年3月)「ヒトα-フェトプロテイン遺伝子の完全配列によって明らかになった構造、多型、および新規反復DNA要素」Biochemistry . 26 (5): 1332– 1343. doi : 10.1021/bi00379a020 . PMID 2436661 .
Sakai M, Morinaga T, Urano Y (1985年4月). "ヒトα-フェトプロテイン遺伝子。配列構成と5'側隣接領域" . The Journal of Biological Chemistry . 260 (8): 5055–5060 . doi : 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)89178-5 . PMID 2580830 .
Ruoslahti E、Pihko H、Vaheri A、Seppala M、Virolainen M、Konttinen A (1975)「アルファフェトプロテイン：正常状態および肝障害下におけるヒトおよび近交系マウスの構造と発現」Johns Hopkins Medical Journal. Supplement . 3 : 249–255 . PMID 4138095 .
Urano Y, Sakai M, Watanabe K, Tamaoki T (Dec 1984). "Tandem arrangement of the albumin and alpha-fetoprotein genes in the human genome". Gene. 32 (3): 255–261. doi:10.1016/0378-1119(84)90001-5. PMID 6085063.
Beattie WG, Dugaiczyk A (Dec 1982). "Structure and evolution of human alpha-fetoprotein deduced from partial sequence of cloned cDNA". Gene. 20 (3): 415–422. doi:10.1016/0378-1119(82)90210-4. PMID 6187626.
Morinaga T, Sakai M, Wegmann TG, Tamaoki T (Aug 1983). "Primary structures of human alpha-fetoprotein and its mRNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (15): 4604–4608. Bibcode:1983PNAS...80.4604M. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.15.4604. PMC 384092. PMID 6192439.

External links

alpha-Fetoproteins at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Overview of all the structural information available in the PDB for UniProt: P02771 (Alpha-fetoprotein) at the PDBe-KB.

この記事には、米国国立医学図書館の公開情報（パブリックドメイン）が含まれています。

[refGRCh38Ensembl-1] 1 2 3GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000081051–Ensembl, May 2017

[refGRCm38Ensembl-2] 1 2 3GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000054932–Ensembl, May 2017

[3] "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.

[4] "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.

[5] Lawrence E. "AFP". Henderson's Dictionary of Biological Terms (10th ed.). p. 1. ISBN 0-470-21446-5.

[Tomasi_1977-6] Tomasi TB (1977). "Structure and function of alpha-fetoprotein". Annual Review of Medicine. 28: 453–465. doi:10.1146/annurev.me.28.020177.002321. PMID 67821.

[Mizejewski_2001-7] Mizejewski GJ (May 2001). "Alpha-fetoprotein structure and function: relevance to isoforms, epitopes, and conformational variants". Experimental Biology and Medicine. 226 (5). Maywood, N.J.: 377–408. doi:10.1177/153537020122600503. PMID 11393167. S2CID 23763069.

[Harper_1983-8] Harper ME, Dugaiczyk A (July 1983). "Linkage of the evolutionarily-related serum albumin and alpha-fetoprotein genes within q11-22 of human chromosome 4". American Journal of Human Genetics. 35 (4): 565–572. PMC 1685723. PMID 6192711.

[entrez-9] 1 2"Entrez Gene: Alpha-fetoprotein".

[10] "Entry - *104150 - ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN; AFP - OMIM". omim.org. Retrieved 2023-06-12.

[11] Perry SE, Hockenberry MJ, Lowdermilk DL, Wilson D (2014). "8: Nursing Care of the Family During Pregnancy". Maternal Child Nursing Care (Fifth ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-323-09610-2. OCLC 858005418.

[Pucci_1991-12] Pucci P, Siciliano R, Malorni A, Marino G, Tecce MF, Ceccarini C, et al. (May 1991). "Human alpha-fetoprotein primary structure: a mass spectrometric study". Biochemistry. 30 (20): 5061–5066. doi:10.1021/bi00234a032. PMID 1709810.

[Seregni_1995-13] Seregni E、Botti C、Bombardieri E (1995)。「アルファフェトプロテインアイソフォームの生化学的特性と臨床応用」。Anticancer Research。15 ( 4 ) : 1491–1499。PMID 7544570 。

[14] Chen H (1997). "アルファフェトプロテインの調節と活性". Critical Reviews in Eukaryotic Gene Expression . 7 ( 1– 2): 11– 41. doi : 10.1615/critreveukargeneexpr.v7.i1-2.20 . PMID 9034713 .

[15] Mizejewski Gj (2003) 正常および疾患状態における妊娠中および乳児期初期のアルファフェトプロテイン濃度; Obs Gyn Survey 804-82658(12):

[Carter_2002-16] Carter CS (2002). "Neuroendocrinology of sexual behavior in the female" . In JB B (ed.). Behavioral Endocrinology . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. 88–89 . ISBN 978-0-262-52321-9。

[17] Zhang YF、Lin S、Xiao Z、Ho M (2024 年 10 月)。「グリピカン-3 相互作用パートナーのプロテオミクスアトラス: 肝臓がんにおける潜在的な免疫療法の標的としてのアルファフェトプロテインおよびその他の細胞外タンパク質の同定」。Proteoglycan Research。2 ( 4 )。doi : 10.1002 / pgr2.70004。ISSN 2832-3556。PMC 11737099。PMID 39822733。

[Nef_2000-18] Nef S、Parada LF（2000年12月）。「男性の性発達におけるホルモン」。Genes & Development。14（24）：3075–3086。doi：10.1101/gad.843800。PMID 11124800。

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