Women have participated in global peacekeeping efforts, including operations led by the United Nations.[113] Although participation increased substantially from the 1990s onward, women remained significantly underrepresented in peacekeeping operations as of the early 2020s.[114] Participation rates vary considerably across military contingents, military observers, staff officers and police units.[115]
Fatalities
Through April 2026, 4,496 people from 134 countries had been killed while serving on peacekeeping missions.[116] The highest death tolls were borne by India (184), Bangladesh (174), Pakistan (172), Nigeria (160), and Ghana (156).[117] Almost 80% of UN peacekeeping fatalities have occurred since 1993.[118]
Effectiveness
There is a large body of scholarship on the effects and effectiveness of peacekeeping operations. The aggregate picture is broadly favourable: peacekeeping is associated with reduced conflict recurrence and fewer civilian deaths, but the literature also shows variation in mission performance and limitations on what peacekeeping can achieve.[119]
The most widely-cited finding is that the deployment of UN peacekeepers significantly reduces the risk of renewed warfare after civil war. Fortna's 2008 analysis of post-Cold War peace agreements found that peacekeeping operations substantially extend the duration of peace, and that the effect is robust to controls for the conditions under which missions are typically deployed.[120] Hegre, Hultman, and Nygård (2019) estimate that a substantial expansion of peacekeeping operations would reduce ongoing armed conflict by roughly two-thirds compared to a counterfactual scenario without peacekeeping.[121] Lundgren (2016) further finds that the credible promise of peacekeeping deployment can already encourage combatants to negotiate.[122]
1 2 3 4 5 Koops, Joachim A.; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (2015-07-09). Koops, Joachim A.; Tardy, Thierry; MacQueen, Norrie; Williams, Paul D. (編). Introduction . Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.78 .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Bellamy, Alex J .; Williams, Paul D. (2015-07-09). Koops, Joachim A.; Tardy, Thierry; MacQueen, Norrie; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). Trends in Peace Operations, 1947–2013 . Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.1 .
↑ Bellamy, Alex J.; Williams, Paul D. (2015-07-09). Koops, Joachim A.; Tardy, Thierry; MacQueen, Norrie; Williams, Paul D. (編). Trends in Peace Operations, 1947–2013 . Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.1 .
↑ハワード、リズ M. (2015-07-09). クープス、ヨアヒム A.、タルディ、ティエリー、マックイーン、ノリー、ウィリアムズ、ポール D. (編).エルサルバドルの国連監視団 (ONUSAL) . オックスフォード大学出版局. doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.34 .
↑ Widyono, Benny (2015-07-09). Koops, Joachim A.; Tardy, Thierry; MacQueen, Norrie; Williams, Paul D. (編).カンボジアにおける国連暫定統治機構 (UNTAC) . Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.38 .
↑ Williams, Paul D. (2015-07-09). Koops, Joachim A.; Tardy, Thierry; MacQueen, Norrie; Williams, Paul D. (編). United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) . Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.41 .
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↑ Zittel, Brian E. (2002). "ブラヒミ報告書:概要" . Journal of International Affairs . 55 (2): 501– 503. ISSN 0022-197X .
↑ D. Boothby (2004). "東スラヴォニア統治の政治的課題" . Global Governance . 10 (1): 37–51 . doi : 10.1163/19426720-01001005 . JSTOR 27800508. 2021年4月17日取得。
↑ MacQueen, Norrie (2015-07-09). Koops, Joachim A.; Tardy, Thierry; MacQueen, Norrie; Williams, Paul D. (編).東ティモールにおける国連暫定行政機構 (UNTAET) . Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.58 .
↑ Bove, Vincenzo; Salvatore, Jessica Di; Elia, Leandro (2021). "UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars" . American Journal of Political Science . 66 (2): 402–417 . doi : 10.1111/ajps.12644 . hdl : 10281/458537 . ISSN 1540-5907 .
1 2 3 Bellamy, Alex J.; Hunt, Charles T. (2015-11-06). "21世紀の国連平和維持活動:保護、武力、そして変化する安全保障環境" . International Affairs . 91 (6): 1277– 1298. doi : 10.1111/1468-2346.12456 .
↑ Pushkina, Darya; Siewert, Markus B.; Wolff, Stefan (2021). "ミッションは(不可能)?内戦における国連の軍事平和維持活動" . European Journal of International Relations . 28 : 158– 186. doi : 10.1177/13540661211046602 . ISSN 1354-0661 .
1 2 Kovatch, Bonnie (2016-04-02). "国連平和維持活動における性的搾取と虐待:MONUCとMONUSCOの事例研究" . The Journal of the Middle East and Africa . 7 (2): 157– 174. doi : 10.1080/21520844.2016.1192978 . ISSN 2152-0844 .
↑ Gilder, Alexander (2023-08-11). "国連と民間人の保護:勢いを維持する" . Journal of Conflict and Security Law . 28 (2): 317– 348. doi : 10.1093/jcsl/krac037 . ISSN 1467-7954 .
↑ Lundgren, Magnus; Oksamytna, Kseniya; Katharina, Coleman (2021). "Only as fast as its troop contributors: Incentives, capabilities, and constraints in the UN's peacekeeping response" . Journal of Peace Research . 58 (4): 671–686 . doi : 10.1177/0022343320940763 .
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↑ Blair, Robert A. (2020-09-10). "UN Peacekeeping and the Rule of Law" . American Political Science Review . 115 (1): 51– 68. doi : 10.1017/S0003055420000738 . ISSN 0003-0554 .
↑ Bove, Vincenzo; Salvatore, Jessica Di; Elia, Leandro (2021-07-01). "UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well‐Being in Civil Wars" . American Journal of Political Science . 66 (2): 402–417 . doi : 10.1111/ajps.12644 . ISSN 0092-5853 .
↑ Pushkina, Darya; Siewert, Markus B.; Wolff, Stefan (2021-09-21). "ミッションは(不可能)?内戦における国連の軍事平和維持活動" . European Journal of International Relations . 28 (1): 158– 186. doi : 10.1177/13540661211046602 . ISSN 1354-0661 .
↑ Autesserre, Séverine (2016). Peaceland: conflict resolution and the everyday politics of international intervention (3rd printing ed.). New York. ISBN978-1-107-63204-2。{{cite book}}: CS1メンテナンス: 場所の発行元が見つかりません (リンク)
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Holt, Victoria K.、および Michael G. Mackinnon。(2008)「平和維持活動に対する米国の政策の起源と進化」International peacekeeping 15.1(2008):18-34;ビル・クリントン政権とジョージ・W・ブッシュ政権について。オンライン、 2020年8月21日にWayback Machineにアーカイブ済み。