For example, Sterling Seagrave, in his book The Dragon Lady, argues that there were several reasons why the reforms failed. Chinese political power at the time was firmly in the hands of the ruling Manchu nobility. The highly xenophobic iron hats faction dominated the Grand Council and were seeking ways to expel all Western influence from China. When implementing reform, the Guangxu Emperor by-passed the Grand Council and appointed four reformers to advise him. These reformers were chosen after a series of interviews, including the interview of Kang Youwei, who was rejected by the Emperor and had far less influence than Kang's later boasting would indicate. At the suggestion of the reform advisors, the Guangxu Emperor also held secret talks with former Japanese Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi with the aim of using his experience in the Meiji Restoration to lead China through similar reforms.
It has also been suggested, controversially, that Kang Youwei actually did a great deal of harm to the cause by his perceived arrogance in the eyes of the conservatives. Numerous rumors regarding potential repercussions, many of them false, had made their way to the Grand Council; this was one of the factors in their decision to stage a coup against the Emperor. Kang, like many of the reformers, grossly underestimated the reactionary nature of the vested interests involved.
The Emperor set about to enact his reforms by largely bypassing the powerful Grand Council; said councilors, irritated at the Emperor's actions and fearful of losing the political power they had, then turned to the Empress Dowager Cixi to remove the Emperor from power. Many, though not all, of the reforms came to naught. The council, now confident in their power, pushed for the execution of the reformers, an action that was carried out ruthlessly.
Richard's federation theory
According to Professor Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖),[39] Japanese former prime minister Itō Hirobumi (伊藤博文) arrived in China on September 11, 1898, about the same time that Kang Youwei invited British missionary Timothy Richard to Beijing. Richard suggested that China appoint Itō as one of many foreign advisors in order to further push China's reform efforts.[40] On September 18, Richard successfully convinced Kang to adopt his plan in which China would join a federation (合邦) of ten nations.
↑ Kwong, Luke SK (2000). "Chinese Politics at the Crossroads: Reflections on the Hundred Days Reform of 1898". Modern Asian Studies . 34 (3): 663– 695. doi : 10.1017/S0026749X00003814 . ISSN 0026-749X . JSTOR 313144 .
↑ Wong, Young-Tsu (1992). "修正主義の再考:康有為と1898年の改革運動". The Journal of Asian Studies . 51 (3): 513– 544. doi : 10.2307/2057948 . JSTOR 2057948 . S2CID 154815023 .
1 2 Kwong, Luke SK (2000). "Chinese Politics at the Crossroads: Reflections on the Hundred Days Reform of 1898". Modern Asian Studies . 34 (3): 663– 695. doi : 10.1017/S0026749X00003814 . ISSN 0026-749X . JSTOR 313144 .
↑エルマン、ベンジャミン A. (2005年1月1日). 『On Their Own Terms』. ハーバード大学出版局. doi : 10.4159/9780674036475 . ISBN978-0-674-03647-5。
↑ Adshead, SAM; Chesneaux, Jean; Bastid, Marianne; Bergere, Marie-Claire; Destenay, Anne (1977). "China from the Opium Wars to the 1911 Revolution". Pacific Affairs . 50 (3): 492. doi : 10.2307/2757180 . ISSN 0030-851X . JSTOR 2757180 .
↑ Monson, Lucien Mathot (2021). Learning to Be Human: Ren 仁, Modernity, and the Philosophers of China's Hundred Days' Reform (学位論文). ProQuest 2532030025 .
↑ Lewis, Charlton M. (1972). 「梁啓超と中国の知的変遷、1890-1907年の書評」The China Quarterly (52): 756–759 . doi : 10.1017/S0305741000048244 . ISSN 0305-7410 . JSTOR 652299 .
1 2 Huang, Jikun; Rozelle, Scott (2018). 「中国の農業発展と改革の40年」. Garnaut, Ross; Song, Ligang; Fang, Cai (編)『中国の改革と発展の40年:1978–2018』. ANU Press. pp. 487–506 . doi : 10.22459/cyrd.07.2018.24 . ISBN978-1-76046-224-6。
↑エルマン、ベンジャミン A. (2005). 「海軍戦争と中国の自強改革の科学技術的失敗への転化、1865~1895年」。ケネス・スウォープ編『1600年以降の中国の戦争』所収。ラウトレッジ。pp . 145–188。doi : 10.4324 /9781315234366-5。ISBN978-1-315-23436-6。
↑ Kang Youwei 康有為、 Kang Nanhai ziding nianpu康南海自改訂年譜 [Chronicle of Kang Youwei's Life, by Kang Youwei]、台北: 文海書判社、文海出版社、p. 67.
↑ Yang Shenxiu, "Shandong dao jiancha yushi Yang Shenxiu zhe" 山東道監視御史楊深秀摺 [山東サーキットの検閲官である楊神秀による宮殿記念碑]、 Wuxu bianfa dang'an shiliao戊戌變法檔案史料 [1898 年の歴史に関するアーカイブ情報源]改革]、北京:『中華書集』、1959 年、p. 15.「臣尤伏願我皇上早定大計、固結英、美、日本三國、恥嫌『合邦』之名之不美。」
↑ Song Bolu、「Zhang Shandong dao jiancha yushi Song Bolu zhe」掌山東道監察御史宋伯魯摺 [山東省巡回区担当の検閲官、ソン・ボルによる宮殿記念碑]、 Wuxu bianfa dang'an shiliao、p. 170.「渠(李提摩太)之來也,擬聯合中國,日本,美國及英國為合邦,共選争時務,曉暢各國掌故人百人,專理四國兵政稅則及び一切外交等事。」