An escrow is a contractual arrangement in which a third party (the stakeholder or escrow agent) receives and disburses money or property for the primary transacting parties, with the disbursement dependent on conditions agreed to by the transacting parties. Examples include an account established by a broker for holding funds on behalf of the broker's principal or some other person until the consummation or termination of a transaction;[1] or, a trust account held in the borrower's name to pay obligations such as property taxes and insurance premiums. The word derives from the Old French word escroe, meaning a scrap of paper or a scroll of parchment; this indicated the deed that a third party held until a transaction was completed.[2]
Escrow generally refers to money held by a third party on behalf of transacting parties. It is mostly used regarding the purchase of shares of a company. It is best known in the United States in the context of the real estate industry (specifically in mortgages where the mortgage company establishes an escrow account to pay property tax and insurance during the term of the mortgage).[3] Escrow is an account separate from the mortgage account where deposit of funds occurs for payment of certain conditions that apply to the mortgage, usually property taxes and insurance. The escrow agent has the duty to properly account for the escrow funds and ensure that usage of funds is explicitly for the purpose intended. Since a mortgage lender is not willing to take the risk that a homeowner may not pay property taxes, escrow is usually required under the mortgage terms.
Escrow companies are also commonly used in the transfer of high-value personal and business property, such as websites and companies, and in the completion of person-to-person remote auctions.
In the UK escrow accounts are often used during private property transactions to hold solicitors' or licensed conveyancer's clients' money, such as the deposit, until the transaction is completed.[4] Other examples include:
Internet escrow has existed since the beginning of Internet auctions and commerce. It was one of the many developments that allowed trust to be established in the online sphere.[5]
As with traditional escrow, Internet escrow works by placing money under the control of an independent and licensed third party in order to protect both the buyer and seller in a transaction. When both parties verify that the transaction has been completed according to the terms set, the money is released. If at any point there is a dispute between the parties in the transaction, the process moves along to dispute resolution. The outcome of the dispute resolution process will decide what happens to the money in escrow. With the growth of both business and individual commerce on the web, traditional escrow companies have been supplanted by new technologies.
In the US, the California Department of Business Oversight enacted Internet escrow companies as a licensed class effective 1 July 2001.[6] The first Internet escrow company to be licensed was Escrow.com,[7] founded by Fidelity National Financial in 1999.[8]
In the European Union, the Payment Services Directive, which commenced on 1 November 2009, has for the first time allowed the introduction of very low-cost Internet escrow services that are properly licensed and government-regulated. The regulatory framework in the EU allows these web-based escrow services, which operate along the lines of expensive letter of credit service run by banks for international buyers and sellers, but at a cost in cents rather than thousands of Euros, to enhance security in commercial transactions.[9]
オンラインでは、不正なエスクロー方法が用いられています。警戒心の強いインターネットオークション参加者を説得するために、犯人は第三者のエスクローサービスの使用を提案します。被害者は、犯人が実際には正規のエスクローサービスに酷似したエスクローサイトを作成していることに気づいていません。被害者は不正なエスクロー会社に支払いを送金しますが、結局何も受け取れません。あるいは、被害者は対象者に商品を送り、エスクローサイトを通じて支払いを待ちますが、それが不正なサイトであるため、支払いは受け取れません。[ 10 ]正規のオンラインエスクロー会社は政府の登録簿に記載されており、一般的に、オンラインエスクローサービスを利用する前に、政府のオンライン登録簿を独自に確認して正規のサービスであることを確かめるようユーザーに勧めています。現在、米国連邦政府はオンラインエスクローサービスのライセンスを提供していません。ただし、特定の州はオンラインエスクローサービスに独自のライセンスを提供しています。例えば、カリフォルニア州ビジネス局[ 11 ]やアリゾナ州金融機関局[ 12 ]など。
エスクローは、自動銀行や自動販売機の分野で使用されています。一例として、 ATM(現金自動預け払い機)があります。これは、顧客が預けたお金を機械が別々に保管し、計数結果に異議を申し立てた場合にお金が返還される機能です。別の例として、自動販売機があります。自動販売機では、顧客のお金は取引が正常に完了するまで別のエスクロー領域に保管されます。問題が発生し、顧客が返金ボタンを押すと、コインはエスクローから返還されます。問題が発生しない場合は、コインは機械のコイン保管庫に落ちます。[ 13 ]
Source code escrow agents hold source code of software in escrow just as other escrow companies hold cash. Sometimes one may not own or have any rights to the software (including source code) that they are accessing under the terms of a regular SaaS or desktop software agreement. This arrangement does not usually become an issue until technical problems start to arise, i.e., unexpected service interruptions, downtime, loss of application functionality, and loss of data. This can add significant costs to one's business, as they remain reliant upon the software supplier to resolve these issues, unless an escrow agreement is in place. Escrow is when the software source code is held by a third party—an escrow agent—on behalf of the customer and the supplier. Information escrow agents, such as the International Creative Registry, hold in escrow intellectual property and other information. Examples include song music and lyrics, manufacturing designs and laboratory notebooks, and television and movie treatments and scripts. This is done to establish legal ownership rights, with the independent escrow agents attesting to the information's ownership, contents, and creation date.
Escrow is also known in the judicial context. So-called escrow funds are commonly used to distribute money from a cash settlement in a class action or environmental enforcement action. This way, the defendant is not responsible for the distribution of judgment monies to the individual plaintiffs or the court-determined use (such as environmental remediation or mitigation). The defendant pays the total amount of the judgment (or settlement) to the court-administered or appointed escrow fund, and the fund distributes the money (often reimbursing its expenses from the judgment funds).
米国では、エスクロー支払いは、住宅ローン支払いのうち、不動産税と火災保険料の支払いに充てられる部分を指す一般的な用語です。これは、住宅ローン支払いの元利金部分とは別に支払われる金額です。エスクロー支払いは税金と保険料の支払いに使用されるため、「T&I」と呼ばれ、元利金で構成される住宅ローン支払いは「P&I」と呼ばれます。すべての要素の合計は、「PITI」(元金、利息、税金、保険料)と呼ばれます。住宅ローン会社によっては、顧客が不動産税と火災保険料を支払うためのエスクロー口座を維持することを義務付けているところもあります。また、顧客が任意で利用できるようにしているところもあります。特に連邦住宅局(FHA)ローンなど、一部の種類のローンでは、貸し手がローンの期間中、エスクロー口座を維持することが義務付けられています。
固定金利であっても、不動産税や保険料の変動により、ローン期間中に毎月の住宅ローン返済額が変わる可能性があります。例えば、火災保険料が年間120ドル増加した場合、その差額を補うためにエスクロー支払額を毎月10ドル増額する必要があります(住宅ローン会社が火災保険料として予想よりも120ドル多く支払った場合、結果として生じるエスクロー不足額の回収も必要になります)。RESPA (不動産決済手続き法)のガイドラインでは、不動産税や保険料の増加を反映させるため、エスクロー支払額は少なくとも12ヶ月に1回再計算されなければなりません。これをエスクロー分析と呼びます。
税金や保険料の支払いに使用されるエスクロー支払いは、数年またはローンの期間中続く長期エスクロー口座です。エスクローは、不動産取引の決済を円滑にするために使用される短期口座を指す場合もあります。このタイプのエスクローでは、買い手と売り手が直接取引するのではなく、エスクロー会社が取引の決済に関連するすべての書類と資金を保管します。取引が決済準備完了となった場合、エスクロー会社はすべての資金と書類を正当な受取人に分配し、適切な当局に権利証を登記します。[ 14 ]
裁判所は時に利害関係者として機能し、所有権の可能性のある者同士の訴訟によって誰がその財産に対する権利を有するかという問題が解決されるまで、財産を保管する。
Escrow arrangement is often used as a part of mergers and acquisitions, a supplement that warranties and indemnities offered by the seller(s).[15] This will be particularly likely where the credit risk of the seller(s) is of poor quality. The buyer is concerned about their ability to recover any sums that may become due.
Unlike many other forms of escrow, escrow arrangements in corporate transactions are often designed to last for extended periods rather than to complete the transfer of an asset. There is also commonly the requirement for an escrow agent to adjudicate on the validity of a claim on the escrow funds, which can lead to the risk of a dispute between the parties.
Due to the length that the funds are held, the escrow arrangements need to take into account different considerations to those for other escrow arrangements, for example (i) information provision to the parties; (ii) application of interest earned on the funds; and (iii) credit worthiness of the financial institution.
For example, two people may bet on the outcome of a future event. They ask a third, disinterested, neutral person—the stakeholder—to hold the money ("stakes") they have wagered ("staked"). After the event occurs, the stakeholder distributes the stakes to one or both of the original (or other) parties according to the outcome of the event and according to the previously decided conditions. Trustees also often act as stakeholders, holding property until beneficiaries come of age, for example.
Not all escrow agreements impose the duties of a legal trustee on the escrow agent, and in many such contracts, escrow agents are held to a mere gross negligence standard and benefit from indemnity and hold harmless provisions.
If the escrow agent is licensed by a governmental authority, then much higher legal standards may apply.