Helpers primarily benefit from an inclusive fitness.[1][17][23] Helpers maintain an inclusive fitness while aiding related breeders and offspring.[11] This type of kinship may lead to inheritance of quality foraging and breeding territories, which will increase the future fitness of helpers.[29] Additional, helpers experience an increased chance of being helped if they were once a helper.[27]
Helpers may also benefit from group interactions, such as huddling for thermodynamic benefits. These interactions provide necessary elements to survive.[15][29] They may also benefit from the increased group interaction on the level of cognitive concern for one another increasing their overall life span and survival.[30]
Finally, helpers may derive inclusive fitness benefits from influencing the extra-pair behaviour of their parents.[31] For example, by preventing their mothers from engaging in extra-pair matings, they can help their biological fathers protect their paternity and so increase their relatedness to future members of the cooperatively breeding group.[31]
The benefits of cooperative breeding in birds have been well-documented. One example is the azure-winged magpie (Cyanopica cyanus), in which studies found that the offspring's cell-mediated immune response was positively correlated with increase in the number of helpers at the nest.[34] Studies on cooperative breeding in birds have also shown that high levels of cooperative breeding are strongly associated with low annual adult mortality and small clutch sizes, though it remains unclear whether cooperative breeding is a cause or consequence.[35] It was originally suggested that cooperative breeding developed among bird species with low mortality rates as a consequence of "overcrowding" and thus fewer opportunities to claim territory and breed. However, many observers today believe cooperative breeding arose because of the need for helpers to rear young in the extremely infertile and unpredictable environments[36] of Australia and sub-Saharan Africa under the rare favourable conditions.[32]
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1 2 3 4 Gerlach, Gabriele; Bartmann, Susann (2002-05-01). "Reproductive skew, costs, and benefits of cooperative breeding in female wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus)" . Behavioral Ecology . 13 (3): 408– 418. doi : 10.1093/beheco/13.3.408 .
1 2 Browning, LE; Patrick, SC; Rollins, L. A; Griffith, SC; Russell, A F. (2012). "血縁選択が、集団増強ではなく、義務的協力繁殖鳥類の援助行動を予測する" . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . 279 (1743): 3861–9 . doi : 10.1098/rspb.2012.1080 . PMC 3415917 . PMID 22787025 .
↑Kokko, H.; Johnstone, R. A. (2001). "The evolution of cooperative breeding through group augmentation". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1463): 187–196. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1349. PMC1088590. PMID11209890.
12Hatchwell, B. J. (2009). "The evolution of cooperative breeding in birds: kinship, dispersal and life history". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 364 (1533): 3217–27. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0109. PMC2781872. PMID19805429.
12Clutton-Brock, Tim (2002). "Breeding Together: Kin Selection and Mutualism in Cooperative Vertebrates". Science. 296 (5565): 69–72. Bibcode:2002Sci...296...69C. doi:10.1126/science.296.5565.69. PMID11935014. S2CID12254536.
12Marino, J.; Sillero-Zubiri, C.; Johnson, P. J.; Macdonald, D. W. (2012). "Ecological bases of philopatry and cooperation in Ethiopian wolves". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 66 (7): 1005–1015. doi:10.1007/s00265-012-1348-x. S2CID17233754.
1234Nichols, H. J.; etal. (2012). "Food availability shapes patterns of helping effort in a cooperative mongoose". Animal Behaviour. 83 (6): 1377–1385. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.03.005. S2CID53146761.
12345Sharp, S. P.; English, S.; Clutton-Brock, T. H. (2012). "Maternal investment during pregnancy in wild meerkats". Evolutionary Ecology. 27 (5): 1033–1044. doi:10.1007/s10682-012-9615-x. S2CID15575678.
1 2 Canestrari, D.; Vila, M.; Marcos, JM; Baglione, V. (2012). "共同繁殖するハシボソガラスは、集団構成に応じて子孫の性比を調整する". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology . 66 (9): 1225– 1235. doi : 10.1007/s00265-012-1375-7 . hdl : 10651/6398 . S2CID 14646037 .
↑ Isler, K.; Van Schaik, CP (2012). "How Our Ancestors Broke through the Gray Ceiling" (PDF) . Current Anthropology . 53 : S453– S465. doi : 10.1086/667623 . S2CID 83106627 .
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1 2 Jetz, Walter; Rubinstein, Dustin R. (2011). "Environmental Uncertainty and the Global Biogeography of Cooperative Breeding in Birds" . Current Biology . 21 (1): 72–8 . Bibcode : 2011CBio...21...72J . doi : 10.1016/j.cub.2010.11.075 . PMID 21185192 .
↑ Valencia, Juliana; Elena Solis; Gabrielle Sorci; Carlos de la Cruz (2006). "Positive correlation between helpers at nest and nestling immune response in cooperative breeding bird". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology . 60 (3): 399– 404. doi : 10.1007/s00265-006-0179-z . hdl : 10630/33525 . S2CID 1898846 .
↑ van Kesteren, Freya; et al. (2013). "希少な社会性イヌ科動物における協力繁殖の生理学;雌エチオピアオオカミの性別、抑制、および偽妊娠" (PDF) . Physiology & Behavior . 122 : 39– 45. doi : 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.08.016 . PMID 23994497 . S2CID 46671897 .
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1 2 3 4 5 6 Kramer, Karen L. (2010-10-21). "Cooperative Breeding and its Significance to the Demographic Success of Humans". Annual Review of Anthropology . 39 (1): 417– 436. doi : 10.1146/annurev.anthro.012809.105054 . ISSN 0084-6570 .
↑ Eberle, Manfred; Kappeler, Peter M. (2006-08-01). "家族保険: 単独性霊長類 (Microcebus murinus) における血縁選択と協力繁殖". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology . 60 (4): 582– 588. doi : 10.1007/s00265-006-0203-3 . ISSN 1432-0762 . S2CID 22186719 .
1 2 van Schaik, Carel P.; Burkart, Judith M. (2010), "Mind the Gap: Cooperative Breeding and the Evolution of Our Unique Features", in Kappeler, Peter M.; Silk, Joan (eds.), Mind the Gap , Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 477– 496, doi : 10.1007/978-3-642-02725-3_22 , ISBN978-3-642-02724-6
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