In the very long term, phosphorus "is often considered to be the ultimate limiting macronutrient in marine ecosystems"[21] and has a slow natural cycle. Where phosphate is the limiting nutrient in the photic zone, addition of phosphate is expected to increase primary phytoplankton production. This technique can give 0.83W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing,[22] which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of about half the current levels of anthropogenicCO2 emissions. One water-soluble fertilizer is diammonium phosphate (DAP), (NH4)2HPO4, that as of 2008 had a market price of 1700/tonne−1 of phosphorus. Using that price and the C : P Redfield ratio of 106 : 1 produces a sequestration cost (excluding preparation and injection costs) of some $45 /tonne of carbon (2008), substantially less than the trading price for carbon emissions.[14]
Nitrogen (urea)
This technique proposes to fertilize the ocean with urea, a nitrogen rich substance, to encourage phytoplankton growth.[23][24][25] Concentrations of macronutrients per area of ocean surface would be similar to large natural upwellings. Once exported from the surface, the carbon remains sequestered for a long time.[26]
An Australian company, Ocean Nourishment Corporation (ONC), planned to inject hundreds of tonnes of urea into the ocean, in order to boost the growth of CO2-absorbing phytoplankton, as a way to combat climate change. In 2007, Sydney-based ONC completed an experiment involving one tonne of nitrogen in the Sulu Sea off the Philippines.[27] This project was criticized by many institutions, including the European Commission,[28] due to lack of knowledge of side effects on the marine ecosystem.[29]
Macronutrient nourishment can give 0.38W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing,[22] which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of current levels of around a quarter of anthropogenicCO2 emissions.
The two dominant costs are manufacturing the nitrogen and nutrient delivery.[30]
According to Ramsay et al.,[29] urea fertilization could cause damage to the rich marine biodiversity of the Sulu sea (including its coral reefs).
In waters with sufficient iron micro nutrients, but a deficit of nitrogen, urea fertilization is the better choice for algae growth.[31] Urea is the most used fertilizer in the world, due to its high content of nitrogen, low cost and high reactivity towards water.[32] When exposed to ocean waters, urea is metabolized by phytoplankton via urease enzymes to produce ammonia.[33]
The intermediate product carbamate also reacts with water to produce a total of two ammonia molecules.[34]
Another cause of concern is the sheer amount of urea needed to capture the same amount of carbon as eq. iron fertilization. The nitrogen to iron ratio in a typical algae cell is 16:0.0001, meaning that for every iron atom added to the ocean a substantial larger amount of carbon is captured compared to adding one atom of nitrogen.[35] Scientists also emphasize that adding urea to ocean waters could reduce oxygen content and result in a rise of toxic marine algae.[35] This could potentially have devastating effects on fish populations, which others argue would be benefiting from the urea fertilization (the argument being that fish populations would feed on healthy phytoplankton).[36]
Pelagic pumping
Local wave power could be used to pump nutrient-rich water from hundred- metre-plus depths to the euphotic zone. However, deep water concentrations of dissolved CO2 could be returned to the atmosphere.[14]
The supply of DIC in upwelled water is generally sufficient for photosynthesis permitted by upwelled nutrients, without requiring atmospheric CO2. Second-order effects include how the composition of upwelled water differs from that of settling particles. More nitrogen than carbon is remineralized from sinking organic material. Upwelling of this water allows more carbon to sink than that in the upwelled water, which would make room for at least some atmospheric CO2 to be absorbed. the magnitude of this difference is unclear. No comprehensive studies have yet resolved this question. Preliminary calculations using upper limit assumptions indicate a low value. 1,000 square kilometres (390sq mi) could sequester 1 gigatonne/year.[14]
↑ Matear, RJ & B. Elliott (2004). "Enhancement of oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO 2 by macronutrient fertilization" . J. Geophys. Res . 109 (C4): C04001. Bibcode : 2004JGRC..109.4001M . doi : 10.1029/2000JC000321 . 2010年3月4日にオリジナルからアーカイブ済み。 2009年1月19日取得。
↑ Jones, ISF & Young, HE (1997). "Engineering a large sustainable world fishery". Environmental Conservation . 24 (2): 99– 104. Bibcode : 1997EnvCo..24...99J . doi : 10.1017/S0376892997000167 . S2CID 86248266 .
↑ Snyder, David M.; Fiekowsky, Peter (2025年4月)「今世紀における気候回復の実現」2025 IEEE持続可能性技術会議(SusTech) pp. 1–7 . doi : 10.1109/SusTech63138.2025.11025796 . ISBN979-8-3315-0431-1。
↑ Ian SF Jones (2014年11月10日)「海洋養殖による炭素管理のコスト」International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management . 6 (4): 391–400 . Bibcode : 2014IJCCS...6..391S . doi : 10.1108/ijccsm-11-2012-0063 . ISSN 1756-8692 .
↑ミンユアン、グリベール、パトリシア・M・アザンザ、ロードラ・バーフォード、ミケーレ・フルヤ、ケン・アバル、エヴァ・アル・アズリ、アドナン・アル・ヤマニ、ファイザ・アンダーセン、パー・アンダーソン、ドナルド・M・ビアドール、ジョン・バーグ、グリ・M・ブランド、ラリー・E・ブロンク、デボラ・ブルックス、ジャスティン・バークホルダー、ジョアン・M・センベラ、アラン・D.コクラン、ウィリアム・P・コリアー、ジャッキー・L・コロス、イヴ・ディアス、ロバート・ドブリン、マルティナ・ドレネン、トーマス・ダイアマン、ソーニャ・T・フクヨ、ヤスウォ・ファーナス、マイルズ・ギャロウェイ、ジェームズ・グラネリ、エドナ・ハ、ダオ・ヴィエット・ハレグラフ、グスターフ・M・ハリソン、ジョン・A・ハリソン、ポール・J・ハイル、シンシア・A・ハイマン、キルステン・ハワース、ロバートW. ジョゼイン、セシル カナ、オースティン A. カナ、トッドM. Kim、Hakgyoon Kudela、Raphael M. Legrand、Catherine Mallin、Michael Mulholland、Margaret R. Murray、Shauna A. O'Neil、Judith Pitcher、Grant C. Qi、Yuzao Rabalais、Nancy Raine、Robin Seitzinger、Sybil P. Salomon、Paulo S. Solomon、Caroline Stoecker、Diane K. Usup、Gires Wilson、Joanne Yin、Kedong Zhou、Mingjiang Zhu (2008年8月14日)。炭素クレジットのための海洋尿素施肥は高い生態学的リスクをもたらす。OCLC 1040066339。{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: 複数の名前: 著者リスト (リンク)
↑ Collins, Carleen M.; D'Orazio, Sarah EF (1993 年 9 月). "細菌ウレアーゼ: 構造、発現調節、および病原性における役割". Molecular Microbiology . 9 (5): 907– 913. doi : 10.1111/j.1365-2958.1993.tb01220.x . ISSN 0950-382X . PMID 7934918 . S2CID 21192428 .
↑Kugino, Kenji; Tamaru, Shizuka; Hisatomi, Yuko; Sakaguchi, Tadashi (21 April 2016). "Long-Duration Carbon Dioxide Anesthesia of Fish Using Ultra Fine (Nano-Scale) Bubbles". PLOS ONE. 11 (4) e0153542. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1153542K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153542. ISSN1932-6203. PMC4839645. PMID27100285.
12Caldeira, Ken, et al. "IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: Ocean Storage." International Panel on Climate Change, 2005.
↑Jones, Ian S.F.; Cappelen-Smith, Christian (1999), "Lowring the cost of carbon sequestration by ocean nourishment", Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies 4, Elsevier, pp.255–259, doi:10.1016/b978-008043018-8/50041-2, ISBN978-0-08-043018-8
↑Duggen, Svend; Croot, Peter; Schacht, Ulrike; Hoffmann, Linn (2007). "Subduction zone volcanic ash can fertilize the surface ocean and stimulate phytoplankton growth: Evidence from biogeochemical experiments and satellite data". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (1) 2006GL027522. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..34.1612D. doi:10.1029/2006GL027522. S2CID44686878. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
↑Peters, J.L.; Murray, R.W.; Sparks, J.W; Coleman, D.S. (2000). "Terrigenous matter and dispersed ash in sediment from the Caribbean Sea; results from Leg 165". Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 115–124. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.165.003.2000.
↑Scudder, Rachel P.; Murray, Richard W.; Plank, Terry (15 July 2009). "Dispersed ash in deeply buried sediment from the northwest Pacific Ocean: An example from the Izu–Bonin arc (ODP Site 1149)". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 284 (3–4): 639–648. Bibcode:2009E&PSL.284..639S. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.05.037.
↑ Lawrence, Martin W. (2014). "海洋施肥における反応性窒素添加による炭素隔離の効率". International Journal of Global Warming . 6 (1) 58754: 15. Bibcode : 2014IJGW....6...15L . doi : 10.1504/ijgw.2014.058754 .
↑ Jones, I; Renilson, M (2011). "海洋養殖による漁業効率の向上" . The Journal of Ocean Technology – One Voice for the World's Oceans Community (6): 30– 37. 2018年8月17日のオリジナルからアーカイブ済み。 2017年6月3日取得。
↑ Glibert, P M.; et al. (2008). "Ocean urea fertilization for carbon credits poses high ecological risks" (PDF) . Marine Pollution Bulletin . 56 (6): 1049– 1056. Bibcode : 2008MarPB..56.1049G . doi : 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.03.010 . PMC 5373553 . PMID 18439628 . 2013年10月29日にオリジナルからアーカイブ(PDF) . 2012年8月27日取得.
↑ 「海洋への施肥は地球温暖化を抑制できるか?」 Live Science。2016年11月27日のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。 2017年6月2日閲覧。