Annotation

Annotation Practices are highlighting a phrase or sentence and including a comment, circling a word that needs defining, posing a question when something is not fully understood and writing a short summary of a key section.^[2] It also invites students to "(re)construct a history through material engagement and exciting DIY (Do-It-Yourself) annotation practices."^[3]

Text and film annotation is a technique that involves embedding comments or textual notes within a film. Analyzing videos is an undertaking that is never entirely free of preconceived notions, and the first step for researchers is to find their bearings within the field of possible research approaches and thus reflect on their own basic assumptions.^[4] Annotations can take part within the video, and can be used when the data video is recorded. It is being used as a tool in text and film to write one's thoughts and emotion into the markings.^[2] In any number of steps of analysis, it can also be supplemented with more annotations. Anthropologists Clifford Geertz calls it a "thick description." This can give a sense of how useful annotation is, especially by adding a description of how it can be implemented in film.^[4]

Marginalia are notes or drawings in the margins of manuscripts. Readers commonly wrote notes in the margins of books to enhance the understanding of later readers.

Textual scholarship is a discipline that often uses the technique of annotation to describe or add additional historical context to texts and physical documents to make it easier to understand.^[5]

Students often highlight passages in books in order to actively engage with the text. Students can use annotations to refer back to key phrases easily, or add marginalia to aid studying and finding connections between the text and prior knowledge or running themes.^[6] Annotation work is often assigned to high school level students as a means of ensuring engagement with the text.

Annotated bibliographies add commentary on the relevance or quality of each source, in addition to the usual bibliographic information that merely identifies the source.

Students use annotation not only for academic purposes, but interpreting their own thoughts, feelings, and emotions.^[2]

Mathematical expressions (symbols and formulae) can be annotated with their natural language meaning. This is essential for disambiguation, since symbols may have different meanings (e.g., "E" can be "energy" or "expectation value", etc.).^[7][8] The annotation process can be facilitated and accelerated through recommendation, e.g., using the "AnnoMathTeX" system that is hosted by Wikimedia.^[9][10][11]

From a cognitive perspective, annotation has an important role in learning and instruction. As part of guided noticing it involves highlighting, naming or labeling and commenting aspects of visual representations to help focus learners' attention on specific visual aspects. In other words, it means the assignment of typological representations (culturally meaningful categories), to topological representations (e.g. images).^[12] This is especially important when experts, such as medical doctors, interpret visualizations in detail and explain their interpretations to others, for example by means of digital technology.^[13] Here, annotation can be a way to establish common ground between interactants with different levels of knowledge.^[14] The value of annotation has been empirically confirmed, for example, in a study which shows that in computer-based teleconsultations the integration of image annotation and speech leads to significantly improved knowledge exchange compared with the use of images and speech without annotation.^[15]

YouTubeでは、約10年間のサービスを経て、2019年1月15日に注釈機能が削除されました。 ^{[ 16 ]}注釈機能は、動画の再生中にユーザーが情報を追加できるようにするものでしたが、YouTubeは、小さなモバイル画面ではうまく機能せず、悪用されていると指摘しました。

XMLやHTMLのようなマークアップ言語は、構文的にテキストと区別できる方法でテキストに注釈を付けます。これらは、望ましい視覚的表現に関する情報や、セマンティックウェブのように機械が読み取れる意味情報を追加するために使用できます。^{[ 17 ]}

これにはCSVとXLS が含まれます。表形式データに意味注釈を割り当てるプロセスは、意味ラベル付けと呼ばれます。意味ラベル付けは、オントロジーから表形式データに注釈を割り当てるプロセスです。^{[ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ]}このプロセスは、意味注釈とも呼ばれます。^{[ 22 ] [ 21 ]}意味ラベル付けは、多くの場合、（半）自動で行われます。意味ラベル付けの手法は、エンティティ列、^{[ 21 ]}数値列、^{[ 18 ] [ 20 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ]}座標、^{[ 25 ]}などに適用されます。^{[ 25 ] [ 24 ]}

Git、Team Foundation Server、Subversionなどのソースコード管理システムで使用される「annotate」機能（「blame」または「praise」とも呼ばれる）は、リポジトリにソースコードの変更をコミットしたユーザーを特定します。この機能は、各行にその行を編集した最後の貢献者の名前（および場合によってはリビジョン番号）が注釈として付加されたソースコードのコピーを出力します。これは、変更によって不具合が発生した場合に責任の所在を明確にしたり、優れたコードの作者を特定したりするのに役立ちます。

自動画像注釈は、画像検索システムのために画像を分類するために使用されます。^{[ 48 ]}

1980年代以降、分子生物学とバイオインフォマティクスはDNAアノテーションの必要性を生み出しました。DNAアノテーションまたはゲノムアノテーションとは、ゲノム内の遺伝子とすべてのコード領域の位置を特定し、それらの遺伝子が何をするかを決定するプロセスです。アノテーション（文脈に関係なく）は、説明または解説として追加されるメモです。ゲノムが配列決定されたら、それを理解するためにはアノテーションが必要です。^{[ 49 ]}

In the digital imaging community the term annotation is commonly used for visible metadata superimposed on an image without changing the underlying master image, such as sticky notes, virtual laser pointers, circles, arrows, and black-outs (cf. redaction).^[50]

In the medical imaging community, an annotation is often referred to as a region of interest and is encoded in DICOM format.

In the United States, legal publishers such as Thomson West and LexisNexis publish annotated versions of statutes, providing information about court cases that have interpreted the statutes. Both the federal United States Code and state statutes are subject to interpretation by the courts, and the annotated statutes are valuable tools in legal research.^[51]

One purpose of annotation is to transform the data into a form suitable for computer-aided analysis. Prior to annotation, an annotation scheme is defined that typically consists of tags. During tagging, transcriptionists manually add tags into transcripts where required linguistical features are identified in an annotation editor. The annotation scheme ensures that the tags are added consistently across the data set and allows for verification of previously tagged data.^[52] Aside from tags, more complex forms of linguistic annotation include the annotation of phrases and relations, e.g., in treebanks. Many different forms of linguistic annotation have been developed, as well as different formats and tools for creating and managing linguistic annotations, as described, for example, in the Linguistic Annotation Wiki.^[53]