有限状態機械これらは、主にコンピュータゲームのエージェント、特にファーストパーソン・シューティングゲームのボットや、仮想映画の俳優に使用されるリアクティブ・アーキテクチャです。通常、状態機械は階層構造になっています。具体的なゲームの例については、 Damian Isla によるHalo 2 ボットに関する論文(2005 年) またはJan Paul van Waveren によるQuake III ボットに関する修士論文(2001 年) を参照してください。映画の例としては、 Softimage を参照してください。
Other structured reactive plans tend to look a little more like conventional plans, often with ways to represent hierarchical and sequential structure. Some, such as PRS's 'acts', have support for partial plans.[2] Many agent architectures from the mid-1990s included such plans as a "middle layer" that provided organization for low-level behavior modules while being directed by a higher level real-time planner. Despite this supposed interoperability with automated planners, most structured reactive plans are hand coded (Bryson 2001, ch. 3). Examples of structured reactive plans include James Firby's RAP System and the Nils Nilsson's Teleo-reactive plans. PRS, RAPs & TRP are no longer developed or supported. One still-active (as of 2006) descendant of this approach is the Parallel-rooted Ordered Slip-stack Hierarchical (or POSH) action selection system, which is a part of Joanna Bryson's Behaviour Oriented Design.
Sometimes to attempt to address the perceived inflexibility of dynamic planning, hybrid techniques are used. In these, a more conventional AI planning system searches for new plans when the agent has spare time, and updates the dynamic plan library when it finds good solutions. The important aspect of any such system is that when the agent needs to select an action, some solution exists that can be used immediately (see further anytime algorithm).
Others
CogniTAO is a decision making engine it based on BDI (belief-desire-intention), it includes built in teamwork capabilities.
Soar is a symboliccognitive architecture. It is based on condition-action rules known as productions. Programmers can use the Soar development toolkit for building both reactive and planning agents or any compromise between these two extremes.
Excalibur was a research project led by Alexander Nareyek featuring any-time planning agents for computer games. The architecture is based on structural constraint satisfaction, which is an advanced artificial intelligence technique.
ACT-R is similar to Soar. It includes a Bayesian learning system to help prioritize the productions.
ABL/Hap
Fuzzy architectures The fuzzy approach in action selection produces more smooth behavior than can be produced by architectures exploiting Boolean condition-action rules (like Soar or POSH). These architectures are mostly reactive and symbolic.
Theories of action selection in nature
Many dynamic models of artificial action selection were originally inspired by research in ethology. In particular, Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen provided the idea of an innate releasing mechanism to explain instinctive behaviors (fixed action patterns). Influenced by the ideas of William McDougall, Lorenz developed this into a "psychohydraulic" model of the motivation of behavior. In ethology, these ideas were influential in the 1960s, but they are now regarded as outdated because of their use of an energy flow metaphor; the nervous system and the control of behavior are now normally treated as involving information transmission rather than energy flow. Dynamic plans and neural networks are more similar to information transmission while spreading activation is more similar to the diffuse control of emotional or hormonal systems.
Stan Franklin has proposed that action selection is the right perspective to take in understanding the role and evolution of mind. See his page on the action selection paradigm. Archived 2006-10-09 at the Wayback Machine
AI models of neural action selection
Some researchers create elaborate models of neural action selection. See for example:
The Computational Cognitive Neuroscience Lab (CU Boulder).
The Adaptive Behaviour Research GroupArchived 2006-10-08 at the Wayback Machine (Sheffield).
Catecholaminergic Neuron Electron Transport (CNET)
2) ) The axons of large SNc neurons were known to have extensive arbors, but it was unknown whether post-synaptic activity at the synapses of those axons would raise the membrane potential of those neurons sufficiently to cause the electrons to be routed to the neuron or neurons with the most post-synaptic activity for the purpose of action selection. At the time, prevailing explanations of the purpose of those neurons was that they did not mediate action selection and were only modulatory and non-specific.[18] Prof. Pascal Kaeser of Harvard Medical School subsequently obtained evidence that large SNc neurons can be temporally and spatially specific and mediate action selection.[19] Other evidence indicates that the large LC axons have similar behavior.[20][21]
3) Several sources of electrons or excitons to provide the energy for the mechanism were hypothesized in 2018 but had not been observed at that time. Dioxetane cleavage (which can occur during somatic dopamine metabolism by quinone degradation of melanin) was contemporaneously proposed to generate high energy triplet state electrons by Prof. Doug Brash at Yale, which could provide a source for electrons for the CNET mechanism.[22][23][24]
While evidence of a number of physical predictions of the CNET hypothesis has thus been obtained, evidence of whether the hypothesis itself is correct has not been sought. One way to try to determine whether the CNET mechanism is present in these neurons would be to use quantum dot fluorophores and optical probes to determine whether electron tunneling associated with ferritin in the neurons is occurring in association with specific actions.[6][25][26]
↑グアテオ、エツィア。クッキアローニ、マリア・レティツィア。 Mercuri、Nicola B. (2009)、「大脳基底核核の黒質制御」、黒質におけるドーパミン作動性ニューロンの誕生、生、死、ウィーン: Springer Vienna、pp. 91–101、doi : 10.1007/978-3-211-92660-4_7、ISBN978-3-211-92659-8PMID 20411770
↑Rourk, Christopher John (September 2018). "Ferritin and neuromelanin "quantum dot" array structures in dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta and norepinephrine neurons of the locus coeruleus". Biosystems. 171: 48–58. Bibcode:2018BiSys.171...48R. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2018.07.008. ISSN0303-2647. PMID30048795. S2CID51722018.
↑Rourk, Christopher J. (2020), "Functional neural electron transport", Quantum Boundaries of Life, Advances in Quantum Chemistry, vol.82, Elsevier, pp.25–111, doi:10.1016/bs.aiq.2020.08.001, ISBN978-0-12-822639-1, S2CID229230562
↑Tribl, Florian; Asan, Esther; Arzberger, Thomas; Tatschner, Thomas; Langenfeld, Elmar; Meyer, Helmut E.; Bringmann, Gerhard; Riederer, Peter; Gerlach, Manfred; Marcus, Katrin (August 2009). "Identification of L-ferritin in Neuromelanin Granules of the Human Substantia Nigra". Molecular & Cellular Proteomics. 8 (8): 1832–1838. doi:10.1074/mcp.m900006-mcp200. ISSN1535-9476. PMC2722774. PMID19318681. S2CID23650245.
↑Rourk, Christopher J. (May 2019). "Indication of quantum mechanical electron transport in human substantia nigra tissue from conductive atomic force microscopy analysis". Biosystems. 179: 30–38. Bibcode:2019BiSys.179...30R. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2019.02.003. ISSN0303-2647. PMID30826349. S2CID73509918.
↑Rourk, Christopher; Huang, Yunbo; Chen, Minjing; Shen, Cai (2021-06-16). "Indication of Highly Correlated Electron Transport in Disordered Multilayer Ferritin Structures". Materials. 14 (16). doi:10.3390/ma14164527. PMC8399281. PMID34443050. S2CID241118606.
↑Friedrich, I.; Reimann, K.; Jankuhn, S.; Kirilina, E.; Stieler, J.; Sonntag, M.; Meijer, J.; Weiskopf, N.; Reinert, T.; Arendt, T.; Morawski, M. (2021-03-22). "Cell specific quantitative iron mapping on brain slices by immuno-µPIXE in healthy elderly and Parkinson's disease". Acta Neuropathologica Communications. 9 (1): 47. doi:10.1186/s40478-021-01145-2. ISSN2051-5960. PMC7986300. PMID33752749. S2CID232322739.
↑Schultz, Wolfram (2016-02-02). "Reward functions of the basal ganglia". Journal of Neural Transmission. 123 (7): 679–693. doi:10.1007/s00702-016-1510-0. ISSN0300-9564. PMC5495848. PMID26838982. S2CID3894133.
↑Liu, Changliang; Goel, Pragya; Kaeser, Pascal S. (2021-04-09). "Spatial and temporal scales of dopamine transmission". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 22 (6): 345–358. doi:10.1038/s41583-021-00455-7. ISSN1471-003X. PMC8220193. PMID33837376.
↑Behl, Tapan; Kaur, Ishnoor; Sehgal, Aayush; Singh, Sukhbir; Makeen, Hafiz A.; Albratty, Mohammed; Alhazmi, Hassan A.; Bhatia, Saurabh; Bungau, Simona (July 2022). "The Locus Coeruleus – Noradrenaline system: Looking into Alzheimer's therapeutics with rose coloured glasses". Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 151 113179. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113179. ISSN0753-3322. PMID35676784. S2CID249137521.
↑Breton-Provencher, Vincent; Drummond, Gabrielle T.; Sur, Mriganka (2021-06-07). "Locus Coeruleus Norepinephrine in Learned Behavior: Anatomical Modularity and Spatiotemporal Integration in Targets". Frontiers in Neural Circuits. 15 638007. doi:10.3389/fncir.2021.638007. ISSN1662-5110. PMC8215268. PMID34163331.
↑Brash, Douglas E.; Goncalves, Leticia C.P.; Bechara, Etelvino J.H. (June 2018). "Chemiexcitation and Its Implications for Disease". Trends in Molecular Medicine. 24 (6): 527–541. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2018.04.004. ISSN1471-4914. PMC5975183. PMID29751974.
↑Sulzer, David; Cassidy, Clifford; Horga, Guillermo; Kang, Un Jung; Fahn, Stanley; Casella, Luigi; Pezzoli, Gianni; Langley, Jason; Hu, Xiaoping P.; Zucca, Fabio A.; Isaias, Ioannis U.; Zecca, Luigi (2018-04-10). "Neuromelanin detection by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and its promise as a biomarker for Parkinson's disease". npj Parkinson's Disease. 4 (1): 11. doi:10.1038/s41531-018-0047-3. ISSN2373-8057. PMC5893576. PMID29644335.
↑Premi, S.; Wallisch, S.; Mano, C. M.; Weiner, A. B.; Bacchiocchi, A.; Wakamatsu, K.; Bechara, E. J. H.; Halaban, R.; Douki, T.; Brash, D. E. (2015-02-19). "Chemiexcitation of melanin derivatives induces DNA photoproducts long after UV exposure". Science. 347 (6224): 842–847. Bibcode:2015Sci...347..842P. doi:10.1126/science.1256022. ISSN0036-8075. PMC4432913. PMID25700512.
↑Garg, Mayank; Vishwakarma, Neelam; Sharma, Amit L.; Singh, Suman (2021-07-08). "Amine-Functionalized Graphene Quantum Dots for Fluorescence-Based Immunosensing of Ferritin". ACS Applied Nano Materials. 4 (7): 7416–7425. Bibcode:2021ACSAN...4.7416G. doi:10.1021/acsanm.1c01398. ISSN2574-0970. S2CID237804893.
Further reading
Bratman, M.: Intention, plans, and practical reason. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press (1987)
Brom, C., Lukavský, J., Šerý, O., Poch, T., Šafrata, P.: Affordances and level-of-detail AI for virtual humans[link removed]. In: Proceedings of Game Set and Match 2, Delft (2006)
Bryson, J.: Intelligence by Design: Principles of Modularity and Coordination for Engineering Complex Adaptive Agents. PhD thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2001)
Champandard, A. J.: AI Game Development: Synthetic Creatures with learning and Reactive Behaviors. New Riders, USA (2003)
Grand, S., Cliff, D., Malhotra, A.: Creatures: Artificial life autonomous software-agents for home entertainment. In: Johnson, W. L. (eds.): Proceedings of the First International Conference on Autonomous Agents. ACM press (1997) 22-29
Huber, M. J.: JAM: A BDI-theoretic mobile agent architecture. In: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Autonomous Agents (Agents'99). Seattle (1999) 236-243
Isla, D.: Handling complexity in Halo 2. In: Gamastura online, 03/11 (2005) Archived 2006-01-08 at the Wayback Machine
Reynolds, C. W. Flocks, Herds, and Schools: A Distributed Behavioral Model. In: Computer Graphics, 21(4) (SIGGRAPH '87 Conference Proceedings) (1987) 25–34.
de Sevin, E. Thalmann, D.:A motivational Model of Action Selection for Virtual Humans. In: Computer Graphics International (CGI), IEEE Computer SocietyPress, New York (2005)
Tyrrell, T.: Computational Mechanisms for Action Selection. Ph.D. Dissertation. Centre for Cognitive Science, University of Edinburgh (1993)
van Waveren, J. M. P.: The Quake III Arena Bot. Master thesis. Faculty ITS, University of Technology Delft (2001)
Wooldridge, M. An Introduction to MultiAgent Systems. John Wiley & Sons (2002)