In materials science, a single crystal (or single-crystal solid or monocrystalline solid) is a material in which the crystal lattice of the entire sample is continuous and unbroken to the edges of the sample, with no grain boundaries.[1] The absence of the defects associated with grain boundaries can give monocrystals unique properties, particularly mechanical, optical and electrical, which can also be anisotropic, depending on the type of crystallographic structure.[2] These properties, in addition to making some gems precious, are industrially used in technological applications, especially in optics and electronics.[3]
Because entropic effects favor the presence of some imperfections in the microstructure of solids, such as impurities, inhomogeneous strain and crystallographic defects such as dislocations, perfect single crystals of meaningful size are exceedingly rare in nature.[2] The necessary laboratory conditions often add to the cost of production. On the other hand, imperfect single crystals can reach enormous sizes in nature: several mineral species such as beryl, gypsum and feldspars are known to have produced crystals several meters across.[4]
The opposite of a single crystal is an amorphous structure where the atomic position is limited to short-range order only.[5] In between the two extremes exist polycrystalline, which is made up of a number of smaller crystals known as crystallites, and paracrystalline phases.[6] Single crystals will usually have distinctive plane faces and some symmetry, where the angles between the faces will dictate its ideal shape. Gemstones are often single crystals artificially cut along crystallographic planes to take advantage of refractive and reflective properties.[6]
Production methods
Although current methods are extremely sophisticated with modern technology, the origins of crystal growth can be traced back to salt purification by crystallization in 2500 BCE. A more advanced method using an aqueous solution was started in 1600 CE while the melt and vapor methods began around 1850 CE.[7]
単結晶成長法のツリー図
基本的な結晶成長法は、人工的に成長させるものに基づいて、溶融、固体、蒸気、溶液の 4 つのカテゴリに分類できます。[ 2 ]大きな単結晶 (別名ブール)を製造するための特定の技術には、チョクラルスキー法 (CZ)、フローティング ゾーン(またはゾーン移動)、ブリッジマン法などがあります。ベル電話研究所のティール博士とリトル博士は、チョクラルスキー法を使用して Ge と Si の単結晶を初めて作成しました。[ 8 ]物質の物理的特性に応じて、水熱合成、昇華、または単に溶媒ベースの結晶化など、他の結晶化方法を使用することもできます。[ 9 ]例えば、改良されたキロプロス法を使用して、高品質の 300 kg サファイア単結晶を成長させることができます。[ 10 ]火炎溶融法とも呼ばれるヴェルヌイユ法は、CZ 法の前に 1900 年代初頭にルビーを作るために使用されました。[ 7 ]右側の図は、従来の方法のほとんどを示しています。化学気相成長法(CVD)などの新しいブレークスルーや、既存の方法に対するさまざまなバリエーションや改良が加えられています。これらは図には示されていません。
↑ Zhang, Kai; Pitner, Xue Bai; Yang, Rui; Nix, William D.; Plummer, James D.; Fan, Jonathan A. (2018年1月23日). "非晶質絶縁基板上での単結晶金属の成長" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 115 (4): 685– 689. Bibcode : 2018PNAS..115..685Z . doi : 10.1073/pnas.1717882115 . PMC 5789947 . PMID 29311332 .
↑ Dost, Sadik; Lent, Brian (2007-01-01), "第1章 – はじめに", Dost, Sadik; Lent, Brian (編), 『金属溶液からの半導体単結晶成長』 , アムステルダム: Elsevier, pp. 3–14 , doi : 10.1016/b978-044452232-0/50002-x , ISBN978-0-444-52232-02021年3月11日取得
↑ Kearns, Joel K. (2019-01-01), "2 – Silicon single crystals" , Fornari, Roberto (編), Single Crystals of Electronic Materials , Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 5–56 , doi : 10.1016/b978-0-08-102096-8.00002-1 , ISBN978-0-08-102096-8S2CID 139380571、2021年3月11日取得
↑ Chou, Li-Hui; Na, Yaena; Park, Chung-Hyoi; Park, Min Soo; Osaka, Itaru; Kim, Felix Sunjoo; Liu, Cheng-Liang (2020年3月). "有機トランジスタ用半導体小分子/ポリマーブレンド". Polymer . 191 122208. doi : 10.1016/j.polymer.2020.122208 . S2CID 213570529 .
↑松田翔風、伊藤正道、板垣力、今久保達郎、梅田実(2021年2月)「α-フェニル-4′-(ジフェニルアミノ)スチルベン単結晶の特性評価とその異方性伝導性」 . Materials Science and Engineering: B. 264 114949. doi : 10.1016 /j.mseb.2020.114949 .