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パシュトー語は、分離能格性を持つSOV言語です。形容詞は名詞の前に来ます。名詞と形容詞は、性(男性/女性)、数(単数/複数)、格(直接格、斜格、奪格、呼格) によって活用します。動詞体系は非常に複雑で、現在形、単純過去形、過去進行形、現在完了形、過去完了形があります。過去時制 (単純過去形、過去進行形、現在完了形、過去完了形) のいずれにおいても、パシュトー語は能格言語です。つまり、過去時制の他動詞は文の目的語と一致します。方言には、非標準的な文法特徴がいくつか見られ、その中には古語や古い形式の子孫であるものもあります。
以下の記事では、母音の上に次のマーカーを付けてアクセントを表します: ә́、á、ā́、ú、ó、í、é。
名詞には複数形はありません。
パシュトー語では、名詞は直接格、斜格、奪格（斜格IIとも呼ばれる）、呼格の4つの格に変化します。斜格は前置詞の格として、また他動詞の主語として過去形（能格構文）で使用され、奪格は特定の前置詞や数詞とともに使用されます。
名詞には男性名詞と女性名詞の2つの性別があります。名詞の性別は語尾によって示されます。生物名詞の性別は語尾に関係なく生物学的性別と一致します。[ 4 ]
パシュトー語には定冠詞がありません。しかし、必要に応じて、指示詞などの他の手段で定性を表すことができます。同様に、「1つ」を意味する単語「يو」を用いることで、定性を表すことができます。例えば、「يو روغتون」（病院）のようにです。
一般に、生物の男性名詞は複数形で ان -ā́nをとり、無生物の男性名詞は ونه -únaをとります。 ۀ -ƙ で終わる男性名詞は、接尾辞を付けるとその名詞が失われます。文法的なアニマシーは通常、物理的なアニマシーに対応しますが、 مېړۀ meṛƙ́「夫」は文法的に複数形の مېړونه meṛúnaで無生物であり、پل pul「橋」は有生 — پلان pulā́nであるなど、いくつかの例外もあります。
-i、-ā（これらは常に有生名詞）または -u（これらは有生名詞と無生名詞の両方になり得る）で終わる名詞は、母音の間に -g-、-y-、または -w- を挿入した ان をとります。
-āCә́ パターンで終わる単語 (例えば وادۀ wādә́ "結婚式") は、複数形では短い -a- になります。
例
女性名詞は一般的に語尾が-aで終わります。斜格と直接複数では-eに、斜格複数では-oに変化しますが、これは有生性に関わらず変わりません。子音で終わる女性名詞もいくつかありますが、それらも語尾は同じです。
南部パシュトー語では、最後の -e は強調されない場合は -i と発音されます。たとえば、سترګه straisérga「目」と لار lār 「道」の複数形は、北部ではسترګې stƙ́rgeと لارې lā́reですが、南部ではسترګي stƙ́rgiおよび لاري lā́ri 、مڼه maṇáとなります。 「リンゴ」と「ボード」は、どちらの方言グループでも مڼې maṇéと تختې Taxtéになります。
他の母音で終わる女性名詞もあり、特に -e (複数形ではیانې -yā́neとなる) や -ā または -o (ګانې -gā́neまたは وې -weとなる) で終わるものもある。南パシュトー語では、 یاني -yā́ni、 ګاني -gā́ni、 وي -wiとなる(最後のものは北パシュトー語ほど一般的ではなく、ごく少数の名詞に限られる)。
例
クラス2には、有生・無生を問わず、男性名詞のみが含まれます。語幹内部で様々な変化が生じます。複数形と斜格では-ə́が付きます。
最後の音節に -ú- または -ó- がある名詞は、-ā- に変化します。 تنور tanúr "オーブン" のような名詞は混合活用に属し、斜格形はクラス 2 名詞として形成されますが、複数形はクラス 1 のパターンに従って派生します (ただし、-ú/ó- は南部方言では -a- に、北部方言では -ə- に弱化される場合があります)。 پالېز paléz "キッチン ガーデン" という単語は、クラス 2 に属する名詞でありながら語幹変化を起こさない例としてよく挙げられます。[ 5 ]
-á で終わる生き生きとした男性名詞 (مېلمه melma "ゲスト"、اسبه asba "(馬) 羊飼い"、غوبه ğova "(牛) 羊飼い"、کوربه korba "家の所有者" など) があり、それらもクラス 2 に属します。
-a- を伴う単音節名詞はそれを失い、斜語および複数形の -ə になります。ここにはいくつかの例外があります: غر ğar "山"、ور war "ドア"、ګز gaz "gaz (長さの単位)"、من man "人 (重さの単位)"、ټغر ṭağar "敷物" は、ونه -úna を複数形で表します (غرونه ğrúna、ワルナ/ wrúnaなど）。
最後の音節に -á- がある名詞は、それを -ə́- に変えます。それらのほとんどは活用が混在しており、複数形では -ā́n または -úna を取る場合と取らない場合があります。このクラスの多くの無生物名詞は、両方の接尾辞を取ることができます。唯一の例外は سخر sxar「石」で、これは常に複数形で sxə́r になります。このサブクラスには、ګر、ور、ن、زن で接尾辞が付けられた単語も含まれています。
例
クラス3の名詞は、-ay、-əy、-eで終わる形容詞に関連しています。
男性名詞 -áy (アクセントに注意) は、特に有生名詞の場合、複数形が -yā́n になることがあります。その用法は方言によって多少異なり、南パシュトー語ではあまり一般的ではありません。
女性名詞 -əy では、無生物名詞でも یانې や ګانې を取ることができ、複数形でも変化しないものもあります。 ي -i で終わる抽象名詞（دوستي「友情」、چلاکي「狡猾さ」、ګرمي「熱さ」など）もこの範疇に含まれます。
例
複数形はありません。斜格と奪格では و -o をとります。
女性的な 例としては、اوړه [oṛ֙́ – 小麦粉]、اوبه [obraisé – 水]、پۍ [pə́i – 牛乳] などがあります。
例：اوبه – 水
例：پۍ – 牛乳
男性的な 例: ږدن [ẓ̌dƙn -ソルガム]、دال [dāl -レンズ豆]、شراب [šarā́b – アルコール]
例：دال – レンズ豆
これらは親族関係を示す名詞に限られます。
女性名詞 – 「または」語幹 これらには以下が含まれます。
مور /mor/ 'お母さん';複数語幹 /máynd-/
/xor/ '妹';複数語幹 /xwáynd-/
/tror/ 「父方の叔母」。複数語幹 /tráynd-/
/ngor/ 「義理の娘」。複数語幹 /ngáynd-/
例：
兄弟と娘 ورور=兄弟は直接複数形で وڼه を取る
لور= 娘は وڼې を直接複数形にします
息子
形容詞はパシュトゥー語で stāynúm [ستاينوم] と呼ばれます。形容詞または stāynumúna は、性、数、格が修飾される名詞と一致します。
注記:
クラスIの形容詞は、引用形において子音末尾となり、語幹の最後の音節にアクセントが置かれる。
南部方言では、特定の語幹形状を持つクラスI形容詞は、以下のいずれかの変異を起こす。
または
他の方言では、これらの母音は変化しない。
強勢のある語幹母音 /ə́/ (南部方言) を持つクラス I 形容詞、例えば دنګ /dəng/ '背の高い' は、女性直接複数形と、接尾辞母音が /o/ の場合の斜格複数形の 2 つの形で逆行調和を起こします。
男性直接単数形の最後の音節が ور /‑wár/、ګر /‑gár/、جن /‑ján/、または م ن /‑mán/ であるクラス I 形容詞、および م /‑ám/ で終わる序数は、異なる母音交替を受けます。女性非直接単数形および性別に関係なくすべての複数形では、最後の音節の母音 /á/ が /ə́/ に中央化します。
例 1 = سپک (軽量 )
上記の形容詞 سپک /spək/「軽い」の活用形は、南部方言の母音調和規則を示しています。
例2 = زړور (勇敢な)
形容詞 زړور /zṛawár/「勇敢な」の活用形は、南部方言の中央集権化規則を示している。
生物名詞を修飾する場合、一部のクラスI形容詞はクラスI名詞の生物複数接尾辞を取ることがあります。例：
メアラン
ウルナ
メアラン・ウルナ
「兄たち」
クラス2の形容詞は、子音または強勢のあるシュワー（ه /‑ə́/）で終わることができます。男性単数奪格および呼格の接尾辞を除いて、クラスIIの接尾辞は本質的に強勢があります。これらの強勢のある接尾辞は、クラス1とクラス2の主な違いですが、接尾辞の形にもいくつかの違いがあります。子音で終わる形容詞がクラス1（語幹強勢）に属するかクラスII（接尾辞強勢）に属するかは、語彙素の特性であり、予測できません。
クラス2形容詞の中には、屈折時に語幹異形態変化を起こすものがあり、それらはすべて強勢条件付きである。最初の変化であるシンコペIは、語末が/ə́/であるクラス2形容詞の語末母音に影響を与える。残りの変化は、語末が子音であるクラス2形容詞の語幹母音に影響を与える（強勢がない場合、母音は低下または脱落する）。母音低下は後舌母音のみに影響を与えるが、すべての後舌母音に影響を与えるわけではない。後舌母音低下規則とシンコペII規則のどちらが特定の子音語末形容詞に適用されるかを予測することはできない。規則は以下のとおりである。
接尾辞によって隣接する2つの母音が生じ、そのうち1つだけが強勢を持つ場合、強勢を持たない母音が削除される。両方が強勢を持つ場合は、最初の母音が削除される。この規則は、母音で終わる形容詞に適用される。
例：母音末尾が強勢のある ۀ /‑ə́/ で終わる形容詞
引用形式で強勢のある ه /‑ə́/ で終わる母音末形容詞には、تېره /terə/́ 'sharp' などがあります。これらの形容詞は、この引用形式からクラス 2 に属することが確実にわかります。他のクラスには、/-ə́/ で終わる形容詞はありません。これらの形容詞の語幹末母音は、シンコペ I の形態音韻規則のいずれかに従います。
非語頭の後舌母音を持つクラス2の語末子音形容詞のほとんどでは、/o/、/u/は無強勢時に/a/に低下します。
語幹母音が後舌母音 و /o/、/u/ である子音末形容詞のほとんどでは、無強勢位置で母音低下が起こり、次の音節に /ə́/ が含まれる場合に母音が長くなります。例えば、上記で示した پو خ /pox/ '調理された、熟した' や ړوند /ṛund/ '盲目の' などです。
語幹に /aw/ または /wa/ が含まれる形容詞 [通常は女性形で見られる] では、アクセントが付くとこれらの連続音は /o/ に単純化されます。
後舌母音の分裂: تود /tod/ '熱い'; 語幹 = / tawd /。
短い /a/ は、それに続く音節に /ə́/ が含まれる場合、長い /ā/ に長くなります。この規則は、پاخۀ → پوخやړاندۀ → ړوندのように後舌母音低下を起こす形容詞や、 تاودۀ → تودのように単母音化を起こす形容詞に影響します。
子音で終わる形容詞の中には、アクセントがない場合に語幹の母音が省略されるものがある。
例 = سور /sur/ – 赤
失語によって三重子音クラスターが生じた場合、最初の子音または二番目の子音の後に /a/ が挿入されることがある。
これらの形容詞は、男性単数直接形において、二重母音の分詞接尾辞 ی /‑ay/ で終わります。この接尾辞は強勢があってもなくても構いません。
ストレス
ストレスのない
例 = زلمی (若い/若者 – ی にアクセントがあります)
例 = سوی (burnt - ی はアクセントなし)
これは「非格変化」形容詞群に属し、格変化しません。これらの形容詞は一般的に他言語からの借用語です。男性形・女性形、単数形・複数形の区別はありません。
ただし、話者の中には、これらの形容詞に斜語接尾辞 و /‑o/、وو /‑wo/ を複数の斜語、奪格、呼称の場合に使用する人もいます。
例 = شمالي (ペルシャ語とアラビア語の借用)
例 = شمالي (南部方言)
パシュトー語では形態論的派生が用いられます。これは、単語の基本形または語幹に付加物を加えて意味を変化させるものです（動詞の接尾辞のような文法的な機能ではありません）。
これらは単語の先頭に付加されます。以下に、最も一般的なものの一覧を示します。
例の一覧：
これらは単語の末尾に付加されます。以下に、よく使われるものの一覧を示します。
例の一覧：
上記で認識されている単語以外にも、話者はこれらの接辞を用いて新しい単語を作り出すことができる。
例：
これはパシュトー語で Kaṛnúmay [کړنومی] と呼ばれ、「動詞の名前」という意味です。[ 6 ]無限の動作や出来事を表します。名詞として使われます。男性複数名詞の性数を持ちます。
例: وکړل [他動詞 کول – "行う" の過去完了形] は、不定詞 وهل である男性複数目的語との一致を示します。
ハグイ
彼ら: DIR : 3 : PL
pә
準備中:
xpә́lo
所有: OBL : M : PL
ke
投稿日:投稿
ワハル
倒すべき相手: PST : CONT : 3 : M : PL
ワクル
実行: PST : PRF : 3 : PL
Hağúi pƙ xpớlo ke wahƙ́l wƙ́kṛəl
彼らは:DIR:3:PL オン:PREP 自身の:OBL:M:PL オン:POST 打ち負かす:PST:CONT:3:M:PL する:PST:PRF:3:PL
彼らは互いに争った
これらは、2つの不定詞を組み合わせることによって形成されます 。具体的には、単純な不定詞と接頭辞付き不定詞を組み合わせることによって形成されます。
または、2つの単純な不定詞を組み合わせることによって：
それらは形態素の状態にある。
例：
これらは以下で二重不規則として説明される。
それらは派生接頭辞と動詞の語幹を組み合わせた形をとる。
これらは斜格代名詞および方向接語に対応する。
指示詞接頭辞と同様に、これらも完了相を示すためのアクセント移動の規則に従い、否定形態素や第二位接語によって動詞の残りの部分から分離される。しかし一般的に、これらの意味は、それらが属する動詞語彙から共時的に分離することはできない。
例: پرېکول – 切ること。接頭辞 [پرې] は、2 番目の接辞 [يې] によって動詞語幹 [کول] から分離されています。
プレ
カット: VB :接頭辞: AOR
ええ
それ/彼/彼女: 3 : WK
クリア
カット: VB : AOR : IMP : SG
pré ye kṛá
cut:VB:PREFIX:AOR it/he/she:3:WK cut:VB:AOR:IMP:SG
切って
これらは ا /a/ で始まりますが、/a/ で始まる複合動詞は含まれません。
例：
それらの構文上の振る舞いは接頭辞動詞のそれに似ており、語頭の /a/ は接頭辞であるかのように動詞の残りの部分から分離することができます。接頭辞動詞とは異なり、a で始まる動詞は、
完了形には接頭辞 و /wə́/ が付きます。
وا
wā́
購入：AOR
مې
自分
I: SG : WK
خيستل
存在する
購入: PST : 3PL : M
وا مې خيستل
wā́ me xistəl
購入:AOR I:SG:WK 購入:PST:3PL:M
私はそれらを買いました
他の動詞とは異なり、/a/ は不完了相においてアクセントが変化するという点で特異です。アクセントは語頭に来る場合も、語頭に来ない場合もあります。他の動詞は語頭にアクセントを持つことができません。不完了相において /a/ が動詞の残りの部分から分離されている場合、/a/ は語頭にアクセントを持ちます。
例：初期応力
ا
á
購入：続き
مې
自分
I: SG : WK
خيستل
存在する
購入: PST : 3PL : M
ا مې خيستل
á me xistəl
購入:CONT I:SG:WK 購入:PST:3PL:M
私はそれらを買っていた
例：初期応力以外の応力
اخيستل
軸
購入: CONT : PST : 3PL : M
مې
自分
I: SG : WK
اخيستل مې
私をアクシスト
購入:CONT:PST:3PL:MI:SG:WK
私はそれらを買っていた
複合動詞には2つの種類があります。ただし、これらにはいくつかの例外もあります。
これらは、名詞、形容詞、または副詞に ول [-wraisél] および ېدل [edớl] という動詞接尾辞を追加することによって形成されます。接続する名詞、形容詞、副詞は母音で終わってはなりません。
例：
このカテゴリーにも例外があります。例: سوچ کول など。
名詞や形容詞に助動詞 کول や کېدل を付けて造られます。接続する名詞と形容詞は母音で終わります。
例：
これらは上記のように動詞のカテゴリーに基づいて分類できます。[ 7 ]
Pashto verb bases are formed according to the tense (present/past) and aspect (perfective/imperfective) of a verb.[7]
Aspect
The perfective aspect is indicated by the stressed prefix و /wә́/ or in the case of complex verbs [prefixed verbs, a-initial and compound verbs] by stress on the prefix or complement. The imperfective aspect is indicated by the absence of و /wə/ or stress on the verb itself rather than the prefix or complement.[7]
Tense
The present tense either by the absence of this suffix (transitives), or by the suffix ېږ /ég/ (intransitives).[7]
For single stem verbs: the past tenses is indicated by either the suffix ل /ə́l/ (for transitive verbs) or ېد /ed(ə́l)/ (for intransitives).
For two or more stemmed verbs: the past tense is indicated by stem allomorphy.
Bases
Therefore, the following four-fold-method to differentianate of bases:
1. present perfective
2. present imperfective
3. past perfective
4. past impefective
Inflection
In order to make fully inflected verbs, you add either of the following to these bases:[7]
These are referred to as Weak Verbs by Anna Boyle.[7] These have one stem. From this single stem from all four bases are predictable.
Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to tie"
Notes:
Here is an example first conjugation class intransitive verb: "to reach"
Notes:
In the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.
Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to bring (to speaker)"
Notes:
These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle[7]
These have two stems: present stem and a past stem.
The stems can either share initial sounds as in example:
Or they can be share no similar sounds
Example: the verb لیدل [to see]
In either case the same rules apply, as noted by Anna Boyle:[8]
Notes:
As above, in the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.
Example one: the verb پرېښودل [to leave]
Notes:[8]
These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle.[7]
These are verbs whose imperfective and perfective stems differ as well as their present and past stems. The difference between perfective and imperfective is carried by stress; in perfective the stress is on the first part of the verb whereas in imperfective the stress is on the last syllables.
These examples have been taken from Anna Boyle, pages 219–224 with the tables rearranged:[9]
Examples:
Observation: either three stemmed [ږد, کېږد, کېښود] or four stemmed [یښود ږد, کېږد, کېښود]
Observation: Four stems
Observation: Four Stems
Observation: This example contains locative prefixes را,در,ور
Observation:Three stems:وړ [wṛ] for imperfective and یوس + یووړ for the perfectives . Note – Prefixed وړل /wṛә́l/ 'to carry', use its weak stem [as illustrated with پرېوتل above]
Notes:[9]
• Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem
• Present perfective base: initial-stressed present perfective stem
• Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
• Past perfective base: initial-stressed past perfective stem + (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
Here there use as main verbs are alluded to. To the verb – to do: The brackete [ṛ] in the present perfective base of کول /kawә́l/ 'to do' indicates that it sometimes is not pronounced in speech[10]
Important: Here there use as main verbs are alluded to - when کول and کېدل are used as verbalizers, their perfective forms are not formed with the first conjugation prefix و /wә́/, but are irregular.[10]
To the verb – to become
Notes[11]:
• Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem
• Present perfective base: و /wә́/ + present perfective stem
• Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ ( ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
• Past perfective base: و /wә́/ + past perfective stem + ( ل /‑ə́l-/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
Pashto in every tense has an aspect: perfective aspect [بشپړاړخ] and imperfective aspect [نابشپړاړخ]. The perfective aspect indicates completion or termination of an action. The imperfective aspect indicates continuity of an action or the habitual nature of the action.
In both aspects the stress [خج] is applied to the verb. In perfective, the stress is applied to the initial part of the verb, while in the imperfective it is generally applied to the final part of the verb.[12]
First conjugation verbs, e.g. وهل as above, can be recognised by perfective form, which begin with the prefix و /wə́/, which carries an inherent stress. In a-initial verbs, the perfecive prefix و /wə́/ coalesces with the /a/ to form a prefix وا /wā́/. [8] Example:
These are referred to as prefixed verbs aboves: all of the form prefix + stem. These behave morphosyntactically: they undergo stress shift to form the perfectived, and they can be separated from the stem by a second-position clitic or the negative morpheme.[8]
Example:
These are called compound verbs above – those with adjective complements and noun complements + forms of کول /kawə́l/ or کېدل /kedə́l/. Here the perfective is formed by:[8]
Many third conjugation verbs are contracted in the imperfective aspect, in perfective constructions, the complement is always separate from the verbalizer.
Example 1:
Example 2:
Pashto utilises verbal suffixes [د کړ تاړي].
Verbal suffixes in Pashto denote person, gender and number.[13]
It is easy to demonstrate these in with intransitive verbs in the imperfective.
Gəḍéẓ̌ is the present imperfective stem of the verb gaḍedəl [to dance].
Gəḍēd is the past stem of the verb gaḍēdəl [to dance].
Note: In the plural the 3rd person past masculine can denote both genders when talking about a group. While in the plural the 3rd person past feminine is only used when talking about a group of individuals classed in the female gender.
Example:
Generally ه [ə] or no-stem suffix is employed. But sometimes ئ [əi] is found also.
With وتل the plural suffix ل(əl) is not used instead:
As can be seen from the intransitive verb above [ګډېدل] – the verb agrees with the subject.
Example 1: خوړل – transitive verb – to eat
Compare:
Example 2: اغوستل – transitive verb – to put on/dress
Compare:
In the present tense the nominal/adjectival part of the compound verb agrees with the object. But the auxiliary کول [to do] agrees with the subject.
Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean
In the past both nominal/adjectival and auxiliary components agree with the object.
Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean
The present participle is formed with the past imperfective stem without ل (əl) + ونک (unk) and declension follows the pattern of unstressed ی (ay).
Example ليکل [likəˈl] – writer → ليک [lik] past imperfective stem → ليکونکی [likəwúnkay] – writer
The past participle employs the following stems. It is used in perfect constructions of the verb.
This is formed in the following ways:
Category 1 [non-compound verbs]: Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"
Category 2 [compound verbs]: Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"
Example: of Category 1 verb رسېدل
Formed by به [future marker] +present perfect
This is formed in the following ways:
Category 1 [non-compound verbs]: Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"
Category 2 [compound verbs]: Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"
Example:
Example: Intransitive Category 2 verb پخېدل [to ripen, mature]
The imperfective optative = past imperfective base of verb+ ای-āy [Southern Dialects], ی-ay [North Western Dialects], ې [North Eastern Dialects]
The perfective optative = past perfective base of verb+ ای-āy [Southern Dialects], ی-ay [North Western Dialects], ې [North Eastern Dialects]
Formed by:
Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل
Example:
To indicate:
Formed by:
Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل
Example:
To indicate:
Formed by:
Perfective optative + past perfective of کېدل
The verb "to be" is irregular in Pashto and does not have an infinitive form.
Present imperfective tense of "to be":
Present perfective tense of "to be":
Past tense of "to be":
In Pashto the future tense [ راتلونکی مهال][15] is the same as the present tense [اوسنی مهال][16] with the exception that in the future tense the marker به [bə] is added.
In the third person future tense, also, irrespective of number or gender وي is used.[17]
Future tense of "to be":
Also known as Command Form
وي [wi] is also used; this is the third person singular and plural of the present tense of the verb to be. وي is used when an assumption or a given fact is being discussed where as دی/ده/دي are used reporting an observation. شته functions as "there is" in English.
This is used to make verbs that mean "to make (someone/something) do X" [where do X is the original verb].
Formation: verb stem + an affix و /‑aw‑/.
The causative can either use the present stem or past stem [and sometimes both] – depending on the original verb.
Example:
This is used to make commands. The present stems of the verbs are used to make commands:
The two verbal suffixes are employed:
Example:
The singular is told to one person; the plural is told to more than one person or as form of respectful command.
Pashto positive imperative have two aspects: perfective (initial stress) an imperfective (final stress)
In general the perfective aspect is used to make commands. However, for doubly irregular verbs, the imperfective aspect is used.
The imperfective aspect in the imperative is also used to convey a sense of an urgent command example:
—Finish eating, so we go.
For compounds in the transitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the direct object.
Where the is no object, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject
For compounds in the intransitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject
Pashto Negative Imperatives only employs the Imperfective Aspect with stress on the particle مه /má/.
Compare:
North Eastern Pashto treats negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the entire verb, whereas some other dialects place it between the prefix and the stem.
These by adding noun to verbs to make verbs phrase-like meaning.
These two verbs, کول and کېدل, are used to form compound verbs (denominal verbs). They use the irregular form in the perfective: without prefix و /wə́/.
Here are the forms of Kawə́l[18] as a verbaliser [not a main verb]:
As mentioned by Anna Boyle : ړ /ṛ/ in present perfective forms is written, and pronounced in careful speech, but is unpronounced in many dialect.[19] She mentions that in past 3rd person, even the /ṛ/ can be dropped, since the
personal suffixes differ from those in the present: past ه /ə, a/ as opposed present ي /i/; thus revealing tense without need of ړ /ṛ/.[20]
Here are the forms of Kedə́l[21] as a verbaliser [not a main verb]:
As mentioned by Anna Boyle the 1st and 2nd person forms of Kedə́l are the same to those of the present perfective forms of "to be".[22]
The future tense is formed with the addition of به /bә/; which has been defined by Tegey as a "future marker"[23] and as a "modal clitic" by Boyle.[5]
The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present perfective verb to convey future time event, speculation, or doubt.[5]
plār
father:M:DIR
bә
will:FUT
me
I:1:SG:WK
paisé
money:F:DIR:PL
wә́leẓ̌i
send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
plār bә me paisé wә́leẓ̌i
father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
My father will send money
The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present imperfective verb to convey future event – but with. different nuances explained below.
plār
father:M:DIR
bә
will:FUT
me
I:1:SG:WK
paisé
money:F:DIR:PL
léẓ̌i
send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
aw
and
zә
I:1:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
xwrә́ma
eat:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
plār bә me paisé léẓ̌i aw zә bә xwrә́ma
father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M and I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT eat:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
My father will send money and I will (continue to) eat
plār
father:M:DIR
bә
will:FUT
me
I:1:SG:WK
paisé
money:F:DIR:PL
gā́nda
tomorrow:F:DIR
léẓ̌i
send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
plār bә me paisé gā́nda léẓ̌i
father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL tomorrow:F:DIR send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
My father will send money tomorrow
tә
you:2:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
dzé
go:CONT:PRS:2:SG
zә
I:1:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
pāte
behind:F
kéẓ̌әm
become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
tә bә dzé zә bә pāte kéẓ̌әm
you:2:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT go:CONT:PRS:2:SG I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT behind:F become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
You'll be going, I'll be staying.
With Present Perfect Base, negative future expressions can be created with the negative marker نه /nә/ and future marker به /bә/.[26]
If there is a grammatical subject or object:[27]
Subject/Object + به /bә/ + و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
mewá
fruit:F:SG:DIR
bә
will:FUT
wә́
eat...:AOR:PRS:3
nə
not:NEG
xwri
...eat:AOR:PRS:3
mewá bә wә́ nə xwri
fruit:F:SG:DIR will:FUT eat...:AOR:PRS:3 not:NEG ...eat:AOR:PRS:3
He/She/They will not eat the fruit
If there is both a grammatical subject and object:[27]
Subject + به /bә/ + object+ و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
zә
I:1:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
lik
letter:SG:M:DIR
wә́
send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG
nə
not:NEG
léẓ̌әm
...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
zә bә lik wә́ nə léẓ̌әm
I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT letter:SG:M:DIR send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG not:NEG ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
I will not send the letter
If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:[27]
و /wә́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
wә́
walk...:AOR:PRS:3
bә
will:FUT
nə
not:NEG
gardzi
...walk:AOR:PRS:3
wә́ bә nə gardzi
walk...:AOR:PRS:3 will:FUT not:NEG ...walk:AOR:PRS:3
He/She/They will not walk
The و /wә́/ changes to وا /wā́/.[27] Thereby:
If there is a grammatical subject or object:
Subject/Object + به /bә/ + وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
Verb: اخستل [axstә́l]
mewá
fruit:F:SG:DIR
bә
will:FUT
wā́
buy...:AOR:PRS:3
nə
not:NEG
xli
...buy:AOR:PRS:3
mewá bә wā́ nə xli
fruit:F:SG:DIR will:FUT buy...:AOR:PRS:3 not:NEG ...buy:AOR:PRS:3
He/She/They will not buy the fruit
If there is both a grammatical subject and object:
Subject + به /bә/ + object+ وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
Verb: استول [astawә́l]
munẓ̌
we:1:PL:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
lik
letter:SG:M:DIR
wā́
send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG
nə
not:NEG
stawu
...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
munẓ̌ bә lik wā́ nə stawu
we:1:PL:STR:DIR will:FUT letter:SG:M:DIR send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG not:NEG ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
We will not send the letter
If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:
وا /wā́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
Verb: اچول [ačawә́l]
wā́
put...:AOR:PRS:2:SG
bә
will:FUT
nə
not:NEG
čawe
...put:AOR:PRS:2:SG
wā́ bә nə čawe
put...:AOR:PRS:2:SG will:FUT not:NEG ...put:AOR:PRS:2:SG
You will not put it
First: Between the prefix and the verb base نه /nә́/ is placed[28]
Second: به /bә/ can then be placed
Before verb:
kor
house:M:SG:DIR
ta
to:POST
bә
will:FUT
lāṛ
go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
nә́
not:NEG
šu
go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
kor ta bә lāṛ nә́ šu
house:M:SG:DIR to:POST will:FUT go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL not:NEG go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
We wont got to the house
Or before the object (likely where there is a subject)
muẓ̌
we:1:PL:STR:DIR
bə
will:FUT
kor
house:M:SG:DIR
ta
to:POST
lāṛ
go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
nә́
not:NEG
šu
go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
muẓ̌ bə kor ta lāṛ nә́ šu
we:1:PL:STR:DIR will:FUT house:M:SG:DIR to:POST go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL not:NEG go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
We wont got to the house
With compound verbs: نه /nә/ is inserted between the verb element and the noun/adjective element.[27]
Example: روغېدل [roğedә́l]
tə
you:2:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
róğa
recover...:F:ADJ:SG
nə
not:NEG
še
...become:AOR:PRS:2:SG
tə bә róğa nə še
you:2:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT recover...:F:ADJ:SG not:NEG ...become:AOR:PRS:2:SG
You won't recover
The marker به /bә/ is also used to convey habitual actions in the past.[29]
kála
when
če
that:COMP
bә
would
hağә́
he:3:SG:M:STR:OBL
ḍol
drum:SG:M:DIR
ğaẓ̌awә́
sound:PST:3:SG:M
zә
I:1:SG:STR:DIR
bә
would
gaḍedә́m
dance:PST:1:SG
kála če bә hağә́ ḍol ğaẓ̌awә́ zә bә gaḍedә́m
when that:COMP would he:3:SG:M:STR:OBL drum:SG:M:DIR sound:PST:3:SG:M I:1:SG:STR:DIR would dance:PST:1:SG
When he would play the drum, I would dance
Adverbs that modify adjectives, verbs or verb phrases, and sentences; can be divided into the classes of time, place, manner, and degree.[30]
These adverbs can act alone or as part of an adpositional phrase.
Acting alone:
mə́xkx̌e
before:ADV
rā́ğla
come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
mə́xkx̌e rā́ğla
before:ADV come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
She came earlier
Acting as adipositional phrase:
də
of
māmā́
maternal-uncle:DIR:M:SG
na
from
mə́xkx̌e
before:ADV
rā́ğla
come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
də māmā́ na mə́xkx̌e rā́ğla
of maternal-uncle:DIR:M:SG from before:ADV come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
She came before (my) uncle
These include adverbs with time reference and quantifier-like items.[30]
Common adverbs of time:
təl
always:ADV
de
NEC
xwdā́y
god:DIR
lará
have:CONT:PRS:IMP:SG
təl de xwdā́y lará
always:ADV NEC god:DIR have:CONT:PRS:IMP:SG
May God keep you (well/alive) forever!
This informs us where something takes place.
Common adverbs of time:[31]
kx̌ə́ta
underneath:ADV
kx̌éna
sit:AOR:PRS:IMP:SG
kx̌ə́ta kx̌éna
underneath:ADV sit:AOR:PRS:IMP:SG
Sit down.
These are both adverbs and demonstrative pronouns
Example sentence in Waziri:
déle
hereADV
dzə̃
go:CONT:PRS:1:SG
déle dzə̃
hereADV go:CONT:PRS:1:SG
I am going here
Pashto has pre-positions, post-positions and pre-post-positions. Adpositions generally govern either oblique or ablative case assignment to their objects.[32]
List of prepositions
Pashto uses a significant amount of ambipositions (circumpositions). These usually have two elements, with the noun object positioned between the two elements.
The initial element is likely to be one of these four elements:
The final element is likely to be one of these words:
Here is a list of the simple formations:
Examples
The first element must be dropped when the object of the pre-position is a weak pronoun. Examples:
Sometimes in colloquial Pashto, the word له is dropped from نه and سره.
Pashto consist of combinations of circumposition phrases and additional words.
These use ambiposition له.... نه + additional word
In some dialects له is replaced by د
Examples
Examples:
Examples:
Note: the possessive phrase [də/د] can be substituted with a weak possessive pronoun.
Most common case. The object [noun] of an adposition is most often assigned the oblique case.
Used with:
Example: سړی [using preposition د] and ښځه [using preposition په] are in oblique case; compare ملګری in direct case
də
of:PREP
saṛí
man:M:OBL
malgə́ray
friend:M:DIR
pə
on:PREP
x̌ə́dze
woman:F:OBL
oséẓ̌i
live:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
də saṛí malgə́ray pə x̌ə́dze oséẓ̌i
of:PREP man:M:OBL friend:M:DIR on:PREP woman:F:OBL live:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
The man's friend lives on [his] wife
Example: ما -oblique pronoun used with circumposition په...کښې
pə
on:PREP
mā
me:1:SG:STR:OBL
ke
in:POST
da
be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
pə mā ke da
on:PREP me:1:SG:STR:OBL in:POST be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
She/it is in me
Used with:
Example: circumposition تر ... پورې
tər
till:PREP
kóra
house:M:ABL
póre
till:POST
tlә́m
go:CONT:PST:1:SG
tər kóra póre tlә́m
till:PREP house:M:ABL till:POST go:CONT:PST:1:SG
I was going till the house
With د /də/, having the object marked in the ablative case gives the sense of '(motion) away from':
də
from:COMIT
kóra
house:M:ABL
rā́ğləm
come:AOR:PST:1:SG
də kóra rā́ğləm
from:COMIT house:M:ABL come:AOR:PST:1:SG
I came from the house
په /pə/ 'the instrumental usage + adjective:
kor
house:M:DIR
me
I:1:SG:WK
pә
with:INSTR
grā́na
difficult:ADJ:M:DIR
joṛ
make:M:DIR
kә́ṛay
do:AOR:PTCP:M:DIR
day
be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
kor me pә grā́na joṛ kә́ṛay day
house:M:DIR I:1:SG:WK with:INSTR difficult:ADJ:M:DIR make:M:DIR do:AOR:PTCP:M:DIR be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
I have made the house with difficulty
Other adpositions can assign either oblique or ablative case to the object, without a difference in meaning.
Example: with سړی in oblique case
be
without:PREP
saṛí
man:M:OBL
kor
house:M:DIR
tә́š
empty:ADJ:M
wi
be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
be saṛí kor tә́š wi
without:PREP man:M:OBL house:M:DIR empty:ADJ:M be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
Without a man, a house is empty
Example: with سړی in ablative case
be
without:PREP
saṛiya
man:M:ABL
kor
house:M:DIR
tә́š
empty:ADJ:M
wi
be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
be saṛiya kor tә́š wi
without:PREP man:M:ABL house:M:DIR empty:ADJ:M be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
Without a man, a house is empty
Pashto does not have a distinguishable morphological passive construction. The construction identified by some comprises a special case of denominal verbs.[33] The verbal part of the construction consists of a form of the verbaliser کېدل /kedә́l ('to become') and a verbal complement (in the infinitive form).The actor is expressed as the subject of the sentence, and that noun is case-marked direct and triggers verb agreement (in both past and present).
pә
in:PREP
x̌ār
city:M
ke
in:POST
dә
of:PREP
dwo
two:F:PL:OBL
wədānə́yo
building:F:PL:OBL
bənsáṭ
foundation:M:DIR
kex̌awdə́l
place:INF
šo
become:AOR:PST:3:SG:M
pә x̌ār ke dә dwo wədānə́yo bənsáṭ kex̌awdə́l šo
in:PREP city:M in:POST of:PREP two:F:PL:OBL building:F:PL:OBL foundation:M:DIR place:INF become:AOR:PST:3:SG:M
The foundations of two buildings were laid in the city
The auxiliary verb کېدل combined with the infinitive وهل:
If the actor, if expressed, will most likely appear in an adpositional phrase governed by the circumposition د ...له خوا /də...lə xwā/ or د...له لورې /də...lə lure/.
As with active sentences, the subject may be expressed through the verb agreement suffix alone
dә
of:PREP
x̌ә́źe
woman:F:OBL
lә
from:PREP
xwā
side:F:OBL
wahә́l
beat:INF
kéẓ̌әm
become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
dә x̌ә́źe lә xwā wahә́l kéẓ̌әm
of:PREP woman:F:OBL from:PREP side:F:OBL beat:INF become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
I am being beaten by the woman
This construction may modify a noun; like most noun modifiers, it precedes the head.
dә
of:PREP
x̌ә́źe
woman:F:OBL
lә
from:PREP
lúre
side:F:OBL
likә́l
write:INF
sә́wi
become:AOR:PST:PTCP:PL:M:DIR
śeṛáne
research:F:PL:DIR
laṭawә́m
find:CONT:PRS:1:SG
dә x̌ә́źe lә lúre likә́l sә́wi śeṛáne laṭawә́m
of:PREP woman:F:OBL from:PREP side:F:OBL write:INF become:AOR:PST:PTCP:PL:M:DIR research:F:PL:DIR find:CONT:PRS:1:SG
I am finding the studies that were written by the woman
Pashto utilises conjunction phrases as adverbs. Examples:
Anna Boyle Davids defines particles "any lexically free item that does not host inflection and that does not function as the argument or complement of a verb or adposition".[34]
The word شته [shta] and its negative form نشته /nə́ šta/ is used to denote existence.
Anna Boyle Davids defines these as: "...uninflected sentence-level modifiers. The clause within the scope of the particle may appear as a main clause or as a finite subordinate clause".[5] چې /t͡ʃe/ can appear as a main clause and as a finite subordinate clause.
Affirmation questions and statements contain the affirmation particle: که نه /kə ná/ (literally: "if/or no").[35]
Affirmative Question Example:
lā́ṛe
go:AOR:PST:2:SG
kə
or:PARTICLE
ná
no:NEG
lā́ṛe kə ná
go:AOR:PST:2:SG or:PARTICLE no:NEG
You went, didn't you?
Affirmative Statement Example:
ná
no:NEG
kə
or:PARTICLE
ná
no:NEG
ná kə ná
no:NEG or:PARTICLE no:NEG
No, of-course not; No, I didn't you know
The modal دې [de; Southern dialects: di] expresses a duty or obligation like "must " when used with the perfective tense of a verb.[36]
hağá
he:3SG:STR:DIR
de
NEC
wә́gaḍegi
dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
hağá de wә́gaḍegi
he:3SG:STR:DIR NEC dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
He should/must dance
The modal "bāyád" is also found in construction with the present perfective form of the verb. Tegey notes that like English "should" it carries ambiguity.[37]
hağá
he:3SG:STR:DIR
bāyád
NEC
wә́gaḍegi
dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
hağá bāyád wә́gaḍegi
he:3SG:STR:DIR NEC dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
He should dance
"Pəkā́r day" [it is needed] is also used as deontic clause
pəkā́r
necessary
day
be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
če
COMP
tә
you:2:SG:STR:DIR
də́lta
here:DEM
rā́še
come:AOR:PRS:2:SG
pəkā́r day če tә də́lta rā́še
necessary be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M COMP you:2:SG:STR:DIR here:DEM come:AOR:PRS:2:SG
You should come here
The particle خو /xo/ appears in the second-position and denotes emphasis.[38]
dā
this:DIR
xo
xo:EMPH
manó
shark:F:DIR
da
be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
dā xo manó da
this:DIR xo:EMPH shark:F:DIR be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
This is a shark!
Note: as an emphatic خو /xo/ is considered to be different from the conjunction خو /xo/ 'but'.
The particle x̌ā́yi is placed sentence-initially and can appear in construction with the complementizer چې [če][39]
x̌ā́yi
maybe:PARTICLE
če
that:COMP
sabā́
tomorrow:ADV
ta
to
rā́ši
come:AOR:PRS:3
x̌ā́yi če sabā́ ta rā́ši
maybe:PARTICLE that:COMP tomorrow:ADV to come:AOR:PRS:3
Maybe he/she will come tomorrow
The particle x̌ā́yi can also demonstrate deonitic "should"
Kedáy ši (could become) which potential construction of the verb "to become" – کېدل /kedә́l/ is also used as particle to denote possibility – again as above چې maybe used
kedáy
become:CONT:PST:OPT
ši
become:AOR:PRS:3
[če]
[that:COMP]
sabā́
tomorrow:ADV
rā́ši
come:AOR:PRS:3
kedáy ši [če] sabā́ rā́ši
become:CONT:PST:OPT become:AOR:PRS:3 [that:COMP] tomorrow:ADV come:AOR:PRS:3
Maybe/perhaps he/she will come tomorrow
The following vocatives have been noted:
The particle کاشکې /kāške/ or کاشکي /kāški/ is used as English "if only"; to express wish or desire that something would happen or would have happened.[41]
It can be used with an optative verb, to express a counterfactual wish.
kā́ške
if-only:PARTICLE
waxtí
early:ADV
tlә́lay
gone:AOR:PST:PTCP:M:DIR
wāy
be:CONT:PST:OPT
kā́ške waxtí tlә́lay wāy
if-only:PARTICLE early:ADV gone:AOR:PST:PTCP:M:DIR be:CONT:PST:OPT
I wish you had gone earlier
It can also be used with the present perfective verb, to express a polite request.
Example, from Ghani Khan's poetry:[42]
hağé
she:3:F:STR:OBL
we
say:CONT:PST:3
xoẓ̌á
sweet:ADJ:M:VOC
dilbára
beloved:N:M:VOC
kā́ske
if-only:PARTICLE
stā
your:2:SG:STR:POSS
akә́l
intelligence:N:M:DIR
zmā
my:1:SG:STR:POSS
ši
become:AOR:PRS-PRS:3
hağé we xoẓ̌á dilbára kā́ske stā akә́l zmā ši
she:3:F:STR:OBL say:CONT:PST:3 sweet:ADJ:M:VOC beloved:N:M:VOC if-only:PARTICLE your:2:SG:STR:POSS intelligence:N:M:DIR my:1:SG:STR:POSS become:AOR:PRS-PRS:3
She was saying oh sweet beloved, if only your intelligence be mine
In this section the nuances or the semantics in relation to specific words will be explained.
Both راوستل /rāwastә́l/ and راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ are both transitive verbs denoting the meaning of "to bring"; but their nuance is different. راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is directly involved thus have the meaning more inline with "to bring and carry". راوستل /rāwastә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is causing the object to be brought but the object by its own motion is come thus having a meaning closer to "to bring along".[43]
Example راوړل:
obә́
water:N:F:DIR
me
I:SG:WK
rā́wṛe
bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
obә́ me rā́wṛe
water:N:F:DIR I:SG:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
I brought the water
Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker by his own hand or through a container e.g. by a glass
Example راوستل:
obә́
water:N:F:DIR
me
I:SG:WK
rā́waste
bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
obә́ me rā́waste
water:N:F:DIR I:SG:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
I brought the water
Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker as he/she has caused its bringing e.g. has made a canal/channel from the river bringing about the water
For intangible object راوستل /rāwastә́l/ is better suited; as the object or concepts comes by its own motion.
parmәxtág
development:N:M:DIR
ye
3:WK
rā́wast
bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
parmәxtág ye rā́wast
development:N:M:DIR 3:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
He/she/they brought development
But for bringing "news", "omens/luck" or "diseases" راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ is used – perhaps as the subject is implied to carry it.
x̌ə
good:ADJ
xabár
news:N:M:DIR
de
2:WK
rā́waṛ
bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
x̌ə xabár de rā́waṛ
good:ADJ news:N:M:DIR 2:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
You brought good news
As noted by Ghaza Noor, the choice of an adjective suffix can also have a change on the meaning.[44]
Example: اغېز – ağéz – effect [noun.masc.sing and plural]
Pashto also has rich slang language. Examples:
Pashto has subject-object-verb (SOV) word order as opposed to English subject-verb-object (SVO) word order. In intransitive sentences where there is no object Pashto and English both have subject-verb (SV) word order.[45]
In Pashto, however, all modifiers precede the verb whereas in English most of the verbal modifiers follow the verb.[46]
Pashto exhibits strong head-final order in noun phrases and verb phrases.[32]
Pashto noun phrases generally exhibit the internal order determiner – quantifier – adjective – noun.[32]
The salient exception to the head-final principle can be found in adpositional phrases, given the existence of prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.[47]
Generally, head-final order is found also in the verb phrase, with the verb, if any, as the final element. Relative clauses and sentence-level modifiers may appear in postclausal position.[48]
Pashto has a robust system of light verb constructions (LVC), two-word expressions that are semantically interpretable as a single predicate. Only one of the two canonical types—those of the form noun/adjective + verb (N-V).[48]
As verbs are a closed class in Pashto, the LVC is the only means of creating new verbal forms in the language; it is also used as a way of importing loanwords, with the borrowed word filling the complement slot.[48]
The inventory of light verbs in Pashto should not surprise anyone familiar with LVCs. In addition to the verbs کېدل /kedəl/ 'to become' and کول /kawəl/ 'to make; to do', which we refer to as the intransitive and transitive verbalisers when they act as light verbs, Pashto uses the verbs اخیستل /axistəl/ 'to take', وهل /wahəl/ 'to beat', نيول /niwəl/ 'to seize; to grasp', and ایستل /istəl/ 'to throw out' as light verbs.
Adjective complements of N-V LVCs always show agreement with the undergoer of the action of the verb, which is in turn marked in accordance with Pashto's system of split ergativity. Nominal complements are usually treated as the direct object of the verb, and are therefore also case-marked according to split-ergative alignment. The undergoer of the action, on the other hand, cannot be a direct object, as the verb can have at most two arguments; it is instead indicated by an adposition and accordingly case-marked oblique.[49]
Certain particles can be inserted between:
The particles that interact with verbs in this way are:
Modals, weak personal pronouns, and adverbials are all second-position clitics. They also obey strict rules of ordering relative to each other. Tegey (1977) reports the following ordering of enclitics between verbal components: خو /xo/> به /bə/> { مو /mo/| مې /me/| دې /de/| یې /ye/} > نو /no/. If the first syllable of the verb does not carry stress (that is, if it is an imperfective form), the negative precedes the verb, and the clitics follow the negative. Also, if a perfective form is negated, the negative marker—not the initial syllable of the verb—takes the stress.[50]
The negative particle نه /ná/ nearly always precedes the verb and is placed as close to the verb stem as possible. In perfective constructions, it therefore follows the perfective marker و /wə/ for simplex verbs, and either initial /a/, the prefix, or the light verb complement for complex verbs. Because it carries an inherent stress, it takes the main stress in a perfective verb phrase.[13]
Direct case, masculine[51]
Direct case, masc., sing.