

U-shaped valleys, also called trough valleys or glacial troughs, are formed by the process of glaciation. They are characteristic of mountain glaciation in particular.[1] They have a characteristic U shape in cross-section, with steep, straight sides and a flat or rounded bottom (by contrast, valleys carved by rivers tend to be V-shaped in cross-section). Glaciated valleys are formed when a glacier travels across and down a slope, carving the valley by the action of scouring.[2] When the ice recedes or thaws, the valley remains, often littered with small boulders that were transported within the ice, called glacial till or glacial erratic.
Examples of U-shaped valleys are found in mountainous regions throughout the world including the Andes, Alps, Caucasus Mountains, Himalaya, Rocky Mountains, New Zealand and the Scandinavian Mountains. They are found also in other major European mountains including the Carpathian Mountains, the Pyrenees, the Rila and Pirin mountains in Bulgaria, the Comeragh Mountains in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. A classic glacial trough is in Glacier National Park in Montana, USA in which the St. Mary River runs. Another well-known U-shaped valley is the Nant Ffrancon valley in Snowdonia, Wales.
When a U-shaped valley extends into saltwater, becoming an inlet of the sea, it is called a fjord, from the Norwegian word for these features that are common in Norway. Outside of Norway, a classic U-shaped valley that is also a fjord is the Western Brook Pond Fjord in Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland, Canada.

Formation of a U-shaped valley happens over geologic time, meaning not during a human's lifespan. It can take anywhere between 10,000 and 100,000 years for a V-shaped valley to be carved into a U-shaped valley.[3] These valleys can be several thousand feet deep and tens of miles long.[1] Glaciers will spread out evenly in open areas, but tend to carve deep into the ground when confined to a valley.[1] Ice thickness is a major contributing factor to valley depth and carving rates. As a glacier moves downhill through a valley, usually with a stream running through it, the shape of the valley is transformed. As the ice melts and retreats, the valley is left with very steep sides and a wide, flat floor. This parabolic shape is caused by glacial erosion removing the contact surfaces with greatest resistance to flow, and the resulting section minimises friction.[4] There are two main variations of this U-shape. The first is called the Rocky Mountain model and it is attributed to alpine glacial valleys, showing an overall deepening effect on the valley. The second variation is referred to as the Patagonia-Antarctica model, attributed to continental ice sheets and displaying an overall widening effect on its surroundings.[4]
これらの氷河谷の底は、氷河サイクルに関する証拠が最も多く見つかる場所です。谷底は大部分が広くて平坦ですが、氷の進入と退出の時期を示すさまざまな氷河地形があります。谷には、谷段と呼ばれるさまざまな段差や、10メートルから数百メートルの深さの過掘りがあります。[ 3 ]これらは堆積物で埋め尽くされて平野を形成したり、水で埋め尽くされて湖を形成したりします。湖は「真珠の首飾り」またはリボン湖と呼ばれることもあります。[ 3 ]このような水で満たされたU字谷盆地は、「フィヨルド湖」または「谷湖」(ノルウェー語: fjordsjøまたはdalsjø)としても知られています。ノルウェーのイェンデ湖とバンダク湖は、フィヨルド湖の例です。これらのフィヨルド湖の中には、例えばミョーサ湖(453メートル)やホルニンダルスヴァトネット湖(514メートル)のように非常に深いものもあります。U字型の氷河谷の縦断形状は、平坦な盆地が段差によって分断されていることが多く、階段状になっています。川はしばしば段差を通り抜けてV字型の谷や峡谷を掘ります。[ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
氷河期には、周囲のより小さな支流の谷が本流の谷に合流することが多く、氷が溶けた後には、谷底の壁の高い位置に懸谷と呼ばれる地形が残される。
氷河が後退した後、山頂の雪や氷が溶けて、U字谷に小川や川が形成されることがあります。これらは「不適合流」と呼ばれます。懸谷に形成された小川は滝となり、本流の谷へと流れ込みます。氷河谷には、モレーンと呼ばれる、ダムのような自然の構造物が存在することもあります。これらは、氷河によって運ばれ堆積した過剰な堆積物や氷河堆積物によって形成されます。
A glacial trough or glaciated mountain valley often ends in an abrupt head known as the 'trough end' or 'trough head'.[9] This may have almost sheer rock walls and spectacular waterfalls.[9][10] They are believed to have been formed where a number of small glaciers merge to produce a much larger glacier.[9] Examples include: Warnscale Bottom in the Lake District, Yosemite Valley, and the Rottal and Engstlige valleys in Switzerland.[9][10]
Glacial troughs also exist as submarine valleys on continental shelves, such as the Laurentian Channel. These geomorphic features significantly influence sediment distribution and biological communities through their modification of current patterns.[11]
Geologists did not always believe that glaciers were responsible for U-shaped valleys and other glacial erosional features. Ice is quite soft and it was unbelievable to many that it could be responsible for the severe carving of bedrock characteristic of glacial erosion. German geologist Penck and American geologist Davis were vocal supporters of this unprecedented glacial erosion.[12]
Progress was made in the 1970s and 1980s on the possible mechanisms of glacial erosion and U-shaped valleys via models proposed by various scientists. Numerical models have been created to explain the phenomenon of carving U-shaped valleys.[3]