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The Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca), also known commonly as the Moorish tortoise and the spur-thighed tortoise, is a species of tortoise in the familyTestudinidae. The species is a medium-sized herbivorous testudinid, widely distributed in the Mediterranean region.[3][4]
T. graeca is recognized for its longevity, with verified lifespans exceeding 100 years and anecdotal reports suggesting ages over 125 years.[5] Among reptiles, it has one of the largest known genomes.[6]
The geographic distribution of the Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) includes North Africa, Southern Europe, and Southwest Asia. It is commonly found along the Black Seacoast of the Caucasus, extending from Anapa, Russia, to Sukhumi, Abkhazia, Georgia. Additional populations are present in parts of Georgia, Armenia, Iran, and Azerbaijan.[1]
The oldest confirmed fossil attributed to Testudo graeca originates from the Early Pliocene of Greece.[7] However, fossils tentatively identified as Testudo cf. graeca have also been reported from the Middle and Late Miocene of Greece and Turkey, suggesting a more ancient and geographically diverse origin.[8][9]
The Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) is often confused with Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni). However, notable differences enable them to be distinguished.
The classification of the Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) into subspecies is complex and sometimes inconsistent due to its extensive distribution across North Africa, Southern Europe, and Southwest Asia. Diverse environmental conditions across this range have resulted in a wide array of morphological variations. As of 2023, at least 20 subspecies have been described, with the following 12 currently recognized as valid:[10]
The recognition and delimitation of these subspecies are challenging due to overlapping morphological traits such as body size, shell shape, colour patterns, and the degree of curvature at the carapace edges. Some populations formerly assigned to T. graeca have since been reassigned to different species or genera.
Genetic diversity within T. graeca is further demonstrated by interbreeding between geographically distinct populations, resulting in variable offspring. For this reason, geographical origin is often considered the most reliable method of identification.
Among the most distinctive subspecies is the Tunisian tortoise (T. g. nabeulensis), noted for its bright colouration and small size. However, it is also one of the most sensitive, poorly suited for outdoor enclosures in temperate climates, and incapable of prolonged hibernation.
Populations from northeastern Turkey are notably robust, and include some of the largest individuals, weighing up to 7 kg (15 lb).
Males of Testudo graeca exhibit several distinct physical characteristics that differentiate them from females. They are typically smaller in size and possess longer tails that taper evenly to a point. The male's cloacal opening is situated further from the base of the tail. On the plastron, or underside of the shell, males show a slight concavity, which aids in mounting during mating, whereas females have a flat plastron. Additionally, the posterior portion of a male's carapace is usually broader than its length, and the rear marginal scutes often curve outward.
Testudo graecabrumates during cold months, emerging as early as February in hot coastal areas. Individual tortoises may emerge on warm days even during winter.[6]
Reproductive behavior in T. graeca begins shortly after emerging from hibernation.[11] Males actively pursue females, displaying courtship behaviors such as circling, biting at the limbs, ramming, and mounting attempts. During copulation, males emit squeaking sounds and display a red tongue by opening their mouths.
Females generally remain still during copulation, bracing with their front legs and moving rhythmically in response to the male's actions. A single successful mating can result in multiple clutches of eggs. In captivity, males and females are often kept separate to avoid aggression. If multiple males are housed together, dominant behavior may occur, including attempts to mount other males. An imbalanced male-to-female ratio can lead to serious aggression and injury.[12]
Prior to oviposition, females become noticeably restless, engaging in behaviors such as sniffing and digging to locate suitable nesting sites. In the final days before laying, females may display dominant behavior, like mock mounting and vocalizations. This behavior may help establish social dominance and ensure minimal disturbance during egg laying. The specifics of oviposition resemble those observed in related species like the marginated tortoise.
The Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) is frequently traded as a pet, particularly in source countries such as Morocco and Spain, despite existing legal restrictions on the trade of wild-caught individuals.[13][14][15]
This practice poses a conservation risk, as it may contribute to unsustainable removal of individuals from wild populations for both local sale and international export. Furthermore, concerns have been raised regarding the welfare conditions under which the tortoises are kept and transported, with reports of inadequate housing and care leading to high mortality rates in captivity.[16][15]
In captivity, Greek tortoises (Testudo graeca) commonly consume a variety of leafy greens, with a particular preference for dandelion leaves and similar vegetation. While they may readily eat lettuce, it is generally not recommended as a staple food, because it lacks the essential nutrients required to support their long-term health and survival.[17][18]