BS 5930:2015, "the code of practice for site investigations", is a UK code of practice which came into effect on 31 July 2015 British Standards Institution. The stated purpose of the document is to "...deal(s) with the investigation of sites for the purposes of assessing their suitability for the construction of civil engineering and building works and of acquiring knowledge of the characteristics of a site that affect the design and construction of such work...". The document gives guidance on legal, environmental and technical matters relating to site investigation and includes a section on the description and classification of soils and rocks.
It supersedes BS5930:1999+A2:2010, which itself supersedes BS 5930:1981 which in turn supersedes CP2001: 1957 "Site investigations".
BS5930:1999 was amended in December 2007 to avoid conflict with the newly introduced Eurocode 7 "Geotechnical Design" and the code is to be retained as a normative reference.
BS5930:2015 is a further full revision of the standard, and introduces some principal changes including: compliance with BS EN 1997-1 and BS EN 1997-2 and related test standards; new information on geophysical surveying and ground testing, and updated guidance on desk studies, field reconnaissance, ground investigations on contaminated ground and ground affected by voids; the requirements of data capture in the field and in the inclusion of this in reporting.
Source:[1]
Seven factors to be cognizant of at this stage are: suitability of the site for the proposed works, economic and adequacy of design, optimum method of construction with reference to potential issues due to ground and groundwater. The effect of changes to the ground and environment due to the works, and, therefore the effect on the works from these changes. Consideration of suitability on a selection of sites. And finally, the existing works and their implications. If a site has been used in the past, this is a major factor in the investigation, mining, quarrying, landfill or waste disposal, industrial usages, archaeological or ecological factors may all have a bearing on the intended works. The cost of an SI is low relative to the project cost and when conducted thoroughly can be a significant saving later. Investigations should evaluate the nature of the ground and groundwater. The size and nature of the works will have a bearing on the investigations as will its former use as a site or contamination of ground or groundwater. It will be considered in 3 stages. First a desk study to collate the information above as far as possible. Where a site is contaminated it is appropriate at this stage to plan site safety procedures for any further investigations. Planning the details of further investigations is appropriate too. Existing records, local authorities, industry, libraries, present or past OS maps and aerial photography or even anecdotal information are to be used. A site reconnaissance should also be conducted at this stage and includes a thorough visual inspection of any exposed cuttings and note taken of level of vegetation. The surroundings should also be noted. Second, a more detailed investigation is undertaken and finally a construction review – these shall be discussed later.
Source:[1]
This is a natural follow on from the desk study, the objectives are similar – acquiring sufficient information for design, assessing the hazards. Depending on the works the investigations will differ i.e. defects of existing works, slope failure or new works, soil profile and groundwater condition should be established. Temporary or permanent changes should be investigated this involves changes in stresses and strains, moisture content, strength and compressibility. Certain areas will have old mines and underground cavities which need investigation. The ground investigation should be given enough time to be conducted before works are designed, this may involve in predicting ground condition at various times of the year. Due to the potential flexibility and size of an investigation, adequate supervision, equipment, testing, personnel, and audits should be provided in a safe manner. The extent of the GI can depend on many variables such as, character of site, availability of equipment and personnel and costs of methods. It should cover all ground affected by stresses and strains to an appropriate depth and breadth. Excavations, boreholes probing and geophysical surveying are used to investigate the ground. Intrusive investigations should be sited, spaced and backfilled with care. The GI should give sufficient information to make good decisions on design, construction material selection. The condition and accessibility on site may affect the equipment used. As the determination of groundwater conditions is important – the use of piezometers are at times used. Ground conditions from rock and gravel through to silts and clays will determine the equipments and approach used in the ground investigations as will made up, contaminated ground and under water ground. Geotechnical specialists are used in the investigation and interpretation of results.
Source:[1]
This section is more specific with regard to how the ground is investigated using methods such as excavating or drilling. Frequency of sampling and testing can be decided with the following in mind, the determination of the character and structure of all the strata and ground water conditions, the determination of the properties of the strata and the use of special techniques should ‘normal’ techniques not give satisfactory results. Shallow trial pits go to a maximum depth of 4–5 metres, comprehensive records should include the location and orientation of the pit and the face logged. Samples should be taken as soon as the pit is opened and closed as soon as possible properly – there are however advantages to leaving them open for a time. Samples are taken from deep trial pits and shafts at certain sites if necessary and if below the water table can become a more complicated process. Boring augers are in common use. There are two types of rotary drilling, open hole drilling and core drilling. The selection of the type and method used can depend on ground conditions and time and cost constraints. Recovered cores should be maintained as near as possible to its natural state until it is stored. In most cases it is inevitably disturbed. Another method is wash boring which is most applicable to sands, silts, and clays. However, these are not representative of the character and consistency of the penetrated strata. Ground water conditions are determined from water level in boreholes and the use of standpipe, hydraulic, electrical and pneumatic piezometers. Water samples should be representative and stored in appropriate containers. Backfilling should be well compacted to obviate the flow of groundwater to any aquifer below and/or settlement. The use of cement based grout can be used - bentonite is also used to decrease shrinkage. Sampling quality can be classified to determine depending on their disturbance and other factors such as, wet or dry ground. Samplers should conform to the standard. Sampling takes different forms i.e. – continuous sampling, the sand and window sampler and block sampling. Due to the cost of sample acquisition, samples should be treated with great care. Good methods of handling and labelling should be established.
Source:[1]
これらは、実験室試験だけでは地盤の必要な特性を判断できない場合に使用されます。実験室サンプルは、代表性がなく、品質、応力、間隙水圧、飽和度が不十分であるとみなされることがあります。地盤の不連続性も、現場試験の必要性を生じさせる可能性があります。サンプルサイズは、地盤の性質と試験の種類によって異なります。ボーリング孔は一般的に使用されます。SPTは、杭打ち業者に役立つ情報を提供できる、シンプルで安価な試験です。バン試験は、土のせん断強度を決定するために使用されます。粗いシルトや砂を含む材料では、信頼性の低い結果になる可能性があります。透水性は、帯水層の通常の変動を考慮しながら、関連する帯水層が被圧帯水層か非被圧帯水層かを判断することによって求められます。ボーリング孔自体の設置が応力に影響を与える可能性があります。信頼性の高い試験を行うには、これに続いて揚水試験を行う必要があります。パッカー試験は、グラウト地盤の不透水性とダム基礎の透水性を測定するためにも使用され、強度と変形データも取得できます。機械式、油圧式、空気圧式など多くの種類があり、後者が最も一般的です。適切なパッカーが取り付けられたきれいなボーリング孔が不可欠です(セメントモルタルが使用されることもあります)。使用するボーリング孔から同時に地球物理学的ログを取得することで、結果の価値を高めることができます。 プレッシャーメーターテストは、調査対象の地盤の応力、剛性、強度を測定するために使用されます。ほとんどの地盤タイプで使用できます。主なタイプは、プレボーリング、セルフボーリング、プッシュインの3つです。ボーリングは、地盤への損傷をできるだけ最小限に抑える必要があります。剛性の正確な値を得るために、約3倍のアンロード再ロード法が使用されます。地表からのプロービングは、鋼棒を使用して行われます。主に予備段階で使用されますが、周囲の地盤をチェックするのにも役立ちますが、巨礫や玉石のある土壌には適していません。静的プロービングは、主に電気センサーを使用して行われます。迅速かつ安価です。揚水により、揚水井戸と観測井戸を使用して地下水の状態を決定できます。データ解釈は複雑になる場合があり、定常状態と非定常状態に分類されます。密度試験は、有意な結果を得るために3つの結果の平均値を使用して実施されます。砂置換法とコアカッター試験の使用は一般的であり、水置換法、ゴムバルーン法、および核法も使用されます。現場試験データは、工事の設計において重要です。岩石および土壌の応力測定を行うことができます。支持力試験は、土壌のせん断強度と変形特性を決定するために使用されます。現場せん断試験は、実験室せん断箱試験と同様のシステムを使用して行われます。大規模な試験は、ケースバイケースで評価する必要があります。斜面崩壊または沈下現場試験実施後の構造物の調査は、バックアナリシスとみなされる現象の例であり、これは、地盤および地下水の状態を決定するための完全な調査を伴う場合に成功裏に実施できます。 地球物理探査は、岩盤層やその他の地質学的特徴の決定、帯水層、鉱床、空洞(自然または人工)、および地盤の工学的特性の位置特定のための現場調査に役立ちます。電気抵抗法や地震探査法などが使用されます。これは専門分野です。地球物理アドバイザーはすべての段階に関与する必要があります。経験上、この種の作業の仕様書を作成する際には、他の要因に加えて注意を払う必要があることがわかっています。
出典:[ 1 ]
これらの試験は、試料の記述と分類、土壌と岩石の基本的な挙動の調査、設計要件を参照した土壌と岩石のパラメータの取得を目的として実施されます。地盤の性質と土壌の種類、試料の品質と代表性、提案された分析方法、設計要件、および実験室の能力はすべて、実験室試験における重要な要素です。適切な取り扱い、ラベル表示、および保管を行うことで、指定された試験が円滑に実施されます。試験における実践的な経験とスキルは非常に貴重であり、信頼性の高い予測につながります。試験時には試料の品質を念頭に置き、最終的には明確な結果を報告することが望ましいです。
出典:[ 1 ]
地盤調査の結果は、試料が処分された後でも必要となる場合があり、その場合は土壌の説明のみが頼りとなるため、詳細な説明を記載する必要があります。設計者は、類似の特性を持つ材料の過去の経験も参考にします。試料の品質は説明に反映されるべきです。土壌特性は、粗粒の粒度分布と細粒の塑性に基づいて評価されます。主な説明は簡潔にまとめるべきですが、必要に応じて、密度、不連続性、層理、色、複合土壌タイプ、主要土壌タイプ、地層名、地質構造、堆積物の年代とタイプ、分類などの詳細を追記することができます。
出典:[ 1 ]
Field reports are filled in by the drillers, engineers, technicians, the field report should encourage the operator to record all the data necessary for the eventual interpretation necessary for the design or action necessary for new or remedial works. after a time, samples are destroyed and the only record maybe the field report, for this reason it should be composed and written in properly. Description of ground, ground water, boreholes and other factors should be recorded and commented on, recommendation with regard to safety and design maybe made also.